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Book_ 
Copyright ]N?_ 



,03 



COEXRIGHT DEPOSm 



LUMBER MANUFACTURE 

IN THE DOUGLAS 

FIR REGION 



Prepared by 

H. B. OAKLEAF 

While in charge of Research in Forest Products, 
North Pacific District, U. S. Forest Service 




Commercial Journal Co., Inc. 

910 South Michigan Avenue 

Chicago 



TS S20 
.02 



COPYRIGHT M20 ' '/fJ^ 
COMMERCIAL JOURNAL COMPANY, Inc. 



OCT "J 'm 

©C1A686163 






vO 



DEDICATION 

jO William B. Greeley ifi recognition 
of his ititerest, co-operation and support 
in the preparation of this work. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Page 

Scope and purpose of the book 1 

General character of Douglas Fir mills 3 

Size of plant 3 

Types of plants 4 

Cost of plant 4 

Construction and equipment of plant 4 

Motive power 5 

Character and amount of labor 5 

Organization 6 

Site selection 8 

Size and cost of sites 8 

Future value of site 9 

Taxes 9 

Fire insurance 9 

Labor supply 10 

Water Supply 10 

Power supply 10 

Cost of mill construction .• 11 

Facilities for repairs 11 

Storage facilities 12 

Disposal of waste 14 

Delivery of raw material 14 

Shipping facilities 14 

Contact with market 16 

Retail trade 16 

Climate 16 

Sawmill plant 17 

Pond 17 

Buildings 19 

Types 19 

Foundation piling 19 

Concrete piers 19 

Frame 21 

Walls and roof 21 

Windows 21 

Cost 21 

Sawmill machinery 22 

Log hoists 22 

Cost 22 

Power 22 

Log deck 23 

Log stops and loaders 23 

Log turners 25 ' 

Rock saws 30 

Log carriage 31 

Carriage engines 33 

VII 



TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued 

Page 

Headsaws 34 

Types 34 

Advantages of band headsaws ^ 35 

Advantage of circular headsaws 36 

Size, capacity and cost 36 

Speed of feed 37 

Strain for band saws 37 

Spacing of saw teeth 38 

Speed of saws 38 

Size and cost of saws 38 

Power for headsaws 39 

Operatives and duties 40 

Cant lowering devices 46 

Edgers 47 

Types 47 

Size and capacity 48 

Cost 48 

Speed of feed 48 

Edger saws 48 

Power for edgers 49 

Mechanical liner 50 

Location of edger in mill 50 

Operatives and their duties 50 

Slashers 51 

Cost 52 

Power for slashers 53 

Trimmers 53 

Types 53 

Size and capacity 53 

Cost 54 

Speed of feed 54 

Speed of saws • 54 

Size and cost of saws 54 

Power for trimmers 55 

Operatives and their duties 55 

Timber trimmers 56 

Sawmill rolls and conveyors 58 

Live rolls 58 

Kick-off skids 60 

Dead rolls 62 

Transfer tables 63 

Waste conveyors 64 

Roller band resaws 66 

Vertical resaws 66 

Horizontal resaws 67 

Resaw motors 68 

Gang resaws 69 

VIII 



) 

TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued 

Page 

Re-edgers 70 

Re-trimmers ^ 71 

Refuse hogs 72 

Grading and sorting tables 73 

Timber storage skids 74 

Timber sizers 75 

File room 75 

Care of band saws 75 

Tension 76 

Twists and lumps 78 

Saw cracks 78 

Swaging the teeth 78 

Gumming 78 

Brazing 79 

Ordering band saws 79 

Care of circular saws 79 

Hammering and tensioning : . . 79 

Ordering circular saws 80 

File room equipment 80 

Costs of files and emeries 80 

Cost of filing 3q 

Power for file room 80 

Cost of saws, belts and lubricants 81 

Saws 31 

Saw replacement costs 81 

Belts gi 

Belt replacement costs 81 

Lubricants 82 

Miscellaneous supplies 82 

Cost of installing mill equipment 82 

Cost of sawing 33 

Labor 33 

Repairs g3 

Moving lumber within the plant 34 

Small trucks §4 

Wagons and auto trucks 84 

Tractors 34 

Surface carriers 35 

Tramways and platforms 86 

Monorail conveying and piling systems 87 

Monorail lumber handling costs 39 

Electric locomotives and cars 90 

Overhead cranes 91 

Capacity of overhead cranes 94 

Locomotive cranes 95 

Operatives and their duties 95 

IX 



TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued 

Page 

Dry kilns 96 

Types of kilns 96 

Capacity of kilns 96 

Kiln buildings 96 

Tracks, track supports, and piping 97 

Thermometers 98 

Gauges, reduction valves and steam traps 98 

Automatic temperature regulators 98 

The drying process 98 

Preliminary treatment 98 

Temperature 98 

Heating the lumber 99 

Draughts 99 

Humidity 100 

Time required for kiln drying Douglas Fir 100 

Heat required for kiln drying 101 

Loading kiln lumber 101 

Arrangement of stock 101 

Operatives and their duties 102 

Labor costs 102 

Unloading and sorting kiln lumber 102 

Lumber stacking machines 104 

Tilted-car stacker 105 

Lifting-arm stacker 105 

Lumber unstacking machines 105 

Vertical unstacker 105 

Horizontal unstacker 106 

Kiln cars 106 

Cars for edge-stacked lumber 106 

Cars for flat-piled lumber 106 

Cost of kiln supplies and repairs 106 

Storage tracks and sheds for loaded cars 107 

Tracks 107 

Cooling sheds 107 

Transfer cars 107 

Sorting table for kiln-dried lumber 107 

Air seasoning and storage 109 

Yards 109 

Piles 110 

Time required for drying 110 

Operatives and their duties Ill 

J Lumber piling machines 112 

Cost of air seasoning 112 

Labor 112 

Yard supplies ■ • • 114 

Yard repairs ". • 114 

Cost of pile bottoms 114 

Sheds of rough dry lumber :. 115 

X 



TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued 

Page 

Planing- mill 116 

Buildings 116 

Matchers : 118 

Surfacers 118 

Moulders 120 

Ready sizers 122 

Cost of surfacing and matching 122 

Cut off saws 122 

Pneumatic trimmers 123 

Cost of trimming 125 

Band rip saws 126 

Sorting and bundling planing mill patterns 126 

Blower system 127 

Cutter heads and knives 128 

Grinding and jointing 129 

Dressed-lumber sheds 129 

Shipping 131 

Grading and tallying 131 

Loading cars 131 

By hand 131 

By machine 132 

Loading equipment 132 

Car door rollers 132 

Car movers 132 

Dock handling 132 

Power 134 

Power requirements 134 

Boiler plant 134 

Fuel 134 

Steam turbines 134 

Motors 135 

Cost of installing wires and conduits 135 

Power costs 135 

Labor 135 

Repairs 135 

Supplies 135 

Power plant investments 135 

Refuse burners 138 

Machine and blacksmith shops 139 

Fire protection 140 

Water supply 140 

Automatic sprinklers 140 

Chemical trucks and extinguishers 142 

Wages of mill operatives 143 

Taxes 145 

Property tax 145 

Tax costs per thousand board feet 145 

XI 



TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued 

Page 

Insurance 1^6 

Fire 146 

Liability 146 

Cost segregations 147 

Plant investment summaries 152 

Depreciation 153 

Working capital 154 

Introduction 154 

Factors affecting working capital 154 

Log supply 154 

Stocks on hand 154 

Supplies and repair parts 155 

Bills receivable 155 

Bank balance 156 

Summaries of cost of production 157 

Log prices 159 

Log grades and yields 160 

Columbia River and Puget Sound log scaling and grading rules 160 

Fir lumber products 163 

Flooring 163 

Drop siding and rustic 165 

Ceiling and partition 166 

Silo staves 167 

Finish 168 

Stepping 169 

Fir battens 170 

Tank stock 170 

Moulded casing and base 170 

Fir turning squares 171 

Fir windmill stock 171 

Well tubing 171 

Well curbing 171 

Wagon box bottoms 171 

Fir pickets 171 

Pipe stave stock 171 

Fir factory lumber 171 

Ship decking 173 

Other products 173 

Car materials 173 

Common boards and shiplap 174 

Common dimension 176 

Common plank and small timbers 178 

Timbers 179 

Stringers 180 

Ties 180 

Weight of fir lumber products 182 

XII 



LUMBER MANUFACTURE IN 
THE DOUGLAS FIR REGION 



SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF THE BOOK 

The purpose of this book is to present in convenient form data on the 
methods and costs of constructing and operating plants for the manufacture 
of lumber from Douglas fir in the region west of the Cascade Mountains in 
Oregon and Washington. Taken in connection with U. S. Department of 
Agriculture Bulletin No. 711, "Logging in the Douglas Fir Region," by Wil- 
liam H. Gibbons, similar data is available on both the logging and manu- 
facturing branches of the fir lumbering industry. The information is in- 
tended primarily for National Forest timber appraisers and other National 
Forest officers, for lumbermen not familiar with the manufacture of Douglas 
fir and for students of forestry; particular efforts have been made also 
to include information of value to mill architects and machinery manu- 
facturers, as well as to the lumbermen themselves. The geographic limita- 
tions mentioned above should be kept in mind because most of the conclu- 
sions and figures are not applicable to lumber manufacture in other regions 
nor for other species of wood. This is to he understood in all cases whether or 
not it is specified that the text applies only to conditions at fir mills. 

The particular information of costs and other specific data subject to fluc- 
tuations with time are all as of 1916 and are published now because earli- 
er presentation was prevented by the War. It is realized, of course, that 
these notes are neither flawless nor altogether complete; but they are the 
best available even now and furnish a reliable basis for estimates of com- 
plete operations. The variety of conditions at the many different sizes and 
types of mills have rendered it necessary to make the text and some of 
the tables directly applicable only to the average mill; so care and judg- 
ment must be used in modfying the data to meet a specific case. Most of 
the data is applicable to mills cutting more than 50,000 board feet of lumber 
per day. No attempt has been made to cover the small mills because they 
are relatively unimportant trom the standpoint of the proportion of the prod- 
uct which they manufacture. Electric mills have been featured throughout 
because it is believed that information on mills of this character will be in 
greater demand as time goes on. 

In presenting the data an endeavor has been made to follow the natural 
course of the material through the various steps in the operation. This was 
done primarily to make the information accessible without the necessity of 



* The author is greatly indebted to the following- men who have given as- 
sistance in the preparation of this publication by furnishing information or 
reviewing portions of the manuscript: Messrs. W. T. Andrews, C. <!. Blagen, 
C. E. Grelder, A. M. Hagen, A. J. Lustig-, R. K. Morse, M. L. Mueller. L. A. Nel- 
son, R. W. Vinnedge, J. E. Wheeler, and E. F. Whitney. 

Special acknowledgment is due to Messrs. A. M. Hagen and A. J. Lustig- for 
their helpful suggestions and contributions, and to Mr, E. F. Whitney, through 
whose courtesy tlie records of power consumption for individual machines are 
presented. 



an alphabetical index and to bring the discussions of associated equipment 
and operations as close together as possible. There has been included for 
nearly every unit of equipment a brief statement of the purpose of the 
equipment, the operatives' duties, the size and capacity of machines, the 
weights and cost of the equipment, the operating and maintenance costs, 
the power demands, the motor costs, and similar pertinent data. 

The low, intermediate, and high figure of costs of operation, repairs, and 
supplies are meant to cover not the range for mills of any specific size but 
the general range for all classes, regardless of size or type. So far as pos- 
sible, the effect of size or type of operation has been mentioned with other 
factors bearing on such costs, but sufficient data was not available to bring 
out in each case the exact effect of size of operation on the particular cost 
item. The machinery and equipment prices are those in effect in 1916. The 
costs per thousand feet are in terms of the volume of finished product and 
not log scale or other temporary volumes. 

The drawings of machines and equipment are entirely for illustrative pur- 
poses and must not be considered in any sense as an endorsement of the 
style or types shown. 



GENERAL CHARACTER OF DOUGLAS FIR MILLS 

The first lumbering enterprises in the Douglas fir region, established six 
or seven decades ago, were small, simple sawmills, producing only rough 
green lumber. A number of small mills are still in operation. There has 
been a gradual change in the representative type of mill, however, until now 
the typical mill is a large, complex plant composed of many units and 
equipped to turn out lumber products in a variety of conditions and forms. 

The early mills were located on the principal harbors of the region, Puget 
Sound, Grays Harbor,- Willapa Harbor, and the Columbia River Harbor, and 
most of the lumber is still produced at these centers; but the construction 
of the transcontinental railroads and the inability to obtain stumpage- acces- 
sible to tide water has led to the establishment of inland mills. These are 
becoming more numerous each year. 

Most of the lumber produced at the plants on Grays Harbor and much of 
that manufactured on Puget Sound, the Columbia River, and Willapa Harbor 
is cut by mills which rely solely upon the log market for raw material. 
Since the development of the inland mills, however, there is less of the 
tendency, quite prevalent in the past, to establish manufacturing plants in- 
dependent of logging operations. This is because the inland mills are not as 
a rule situated where they can obtain logs from a number of loggers. If 
mills have to rely upon one or two independent loggers for their material, 
there may not be enough competition to insure reasonable prices, or the 
mills may be forced to shut down because of inability to obtain sufficient 
logs. 

SIZE OF PLANT 

Over 80 per cent of the lumber produced in the Douglas fir region is 
manufactured at plants ranging in daily producing capacity from 75,000 to 
as much as 500,000 board feet. The usual size is probably between 100,000 
and 125,000 board feet, although there are many small mills (25,000 to 50,000 
daily) successfully meeting the competition of the large operators, particu- 
larly in supplying the demand for sawed ties and structural timbers. These 
usually operate on logs from second-growth timber; and having small invest- 
ments and limited crews, are able to cut such logs more cheaply than can 
the extensive and elaborate plants. Simple products can be manufactured 
from such logs about as rapidly in a small mill as in a large complicated 
plant and in the former there is a minimum expense for labor, supplies, and 
repairs. 

The tendency now is to build very large plants equipped elaborately for 
the twofold purpose of securing the profits from the more finished products 
and of manufacturing into by-products raw material that would otherwise 
have to be thrown away or burned. Such plants may including planing mills, 
box factories, etc., and be equipped with machinery for turning slabs and 
other "waste" into lath. 

The enormous amount of capital which has become available for sawmills 
in the last two decades has played an important part in creating the trend 
toward larger plants. The early sawmill operators in the fir region, with 
but few exceptions, had only limited means with which to construct their 
plants and promote the sale of their product. In recent years the money 
made in stumpage or obtained thru bonding systems made possible the con- 
struction of numerous large plants. The fact that buyers of large quantities 
of lumber often prefer to deal with only one or two operators instead of a 
large number, has also been in a way responsible for the construction of 
large plants. The tremendous output and the diversified character of the 
product make it necessary to include in the organization of such plants a 
special force for marketing. 

3 



TYPES OF PLANTS 

The early mills were principally "cargo mills," so-called because they 
were built to supply lumber by vessel to domestic and foreign ports. Today 
not more than 30 per cent of the lumber produced in the region is shipped 
by water, and most of the mills have been modified to make possible the sale 
of at least a part of their product in rail markets. The large market for 
lumber in the Middle West made available by the building of railroads and 
the growth of the local market through the rapid increase in population of 
the Northwest are both responsible for this change. 

Since ocean freight is based on volume, cargo mills do not need facilities 
for kiln drying, air drying, dressing, and matching their product, it usually 
being shipped rough and in the green condition. Due to the facility in load- 
ing and unloading which may be gained, many foreign buyers purchase their 
material in large sizes and resaw it abroad. This practice eliminates large 
yards, for the lumber is close piled on wharves while awaiting the arrival of 
the vessels. The rail mills, on the other hand, are equipped with large dry 
kilns, elaborate planing and matching facilities, and good-sized seasoning 
yards. Thus there are three distinct types of Douglas fir mills: the strictly 
cargo mill, the strictly rail mill, and the combination mill, this last being 
the prevailing type. 

The mills of the region may be divided also into two distinct classes as 
regards their sawing equipment. Originally, the old style circular head saw 
was universally used for the main sawing operations; but at the present time 
the band type is used in the majority of cases because of the smaller saw 
kerf, or "saw waste." 

The use of band head saws did not increase so rapidly in the Douglas fir 
country as in some of the other large lumbering regions because of the cheap 
logs available in the early days and the scarcity of skilled fliers capable of 
caring for such saws. Furthermore, a large number of plants operated on 
logs which had been driven to the mills or to tidewater instead of being 
transported by railroad as is usually done today. Logs transported either 
by driving or by "arding and railroad contain considerable quantities of grit, 
gravel, and even large stones, which become imbedded in the surface and 
cause great damage, especially to the delicate teeth and blade of the mod- 
ern band saw. 

The band head saws at fir mills are usually of the single cutting type, 
although double cutting saws are used as auxiliary equipment in some of 
the larger plants. 

COST OF PLANT 

The investment has increased with the change in the character of the 
product as well as with the amount of lumber produced daily. A plant of 
100,000 feet daily capacity, producing principally rough green lumber, cost 
in 1916, complete, from $100,000 to $120,000 ($1,000 to $1,200 per thousand 
feet of daily cut), while a plant of the same size equipped with dry kilns, 
planing mills, and yard handling facilities cost from $250,000 to $300,000 
($2,500 to $3,000 per thousand feet of daily cut). 

CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF PLANT 

Owing to the large diameter and great length of the logs in the Douglas 
fir region, the mills are built of heavier timbers than those in most other 
lumber producing regions; they are wider and longer for the same producing 
capacity, and are equipped with larger and heavier machines. The logs at a 
fir mill average from 28 to 30 inches in diameter and from 32 to 34 feet long, 



as against logs from 12 to 15 inches in diameter and from 14 to 16 feet long 
in the mills of most other regions. 

The necessity for giant machines with commensurate power require- 
ments in the fir mill are better appreciated when it is understood that the 
massive logs, each weighing from three to five tons, are elevated from 30 
to 40 feet, reduced to huge cants by being shot back and forth against the 
main saw at from 300 to 500 feet per minute; that each of these cants, 
from 4 to 12 inches thick and from 24 to 60 inches wide, is cut to widths at 
a feed of from 200 to 300 feet; and that the resulting numerous pieces are 
trimmed to lengths and deposited on a sorting table all in the course of five 
or six minutes. During the same period from one to three tons of sawdust, 
slabs, and waste wood and bark are mechanically conveyed to the boiler 
plant, lath mill, and refuse burner respectively. 



MOTIVE POWER 

The horizontal steam engine with shaft transmission is the usual type of 
motive power; but the most recently constructed mills, with but few excep- 
tions, are designed and equipped for electric motor drive, the electric power 
being generated at the plant. 

Electric motors have been in successful use in the planing mills and wood 
working plants of the region for many years, but it is only in the last dec- 
ade that the problems retarding their use in the sawmill proper have been 
overcome. It was an extremely difl^cult task to apply motor drive to the 
heavy duty sawing equipment in use at Douglas fir mills. Proper sizes, 
speeds, and types of motors had to be worked out for each machine; and 
specially designed motors and appliances which automatically would pre- 
vent overloading were necessary for certain machines. Today, individual 
or semi-group drive with electric motors is a recognized success, and about 
the only place in the modern Douglas fir sawmill in which steam has not 
been displaced by electricity is in the motive power for the log carriage and 
other log handling equipment such as log turners, kickers, etc. Engineers 
are at work designing a heavy duty electric drive to displace the twin cyl- 
inder steam engines now in general use for this work. 

CHARACTER AND AMOUNT OF LABOR 

The character of labor required in a sawmill has changed considerably. 
In the early days the sawyer (who was also the filer and millwright), the 
engineer, and the bookkeeper were about the only skilled men. Today, par- 
ticularly at some of the larger and more elaborate plants, the staff of skilled 
or technical men include experts in saw filing, millwrighting, electrical en- 
gineering, production engineering, cost keeping, kiln drying, air drying, lubri- 
cating, lumber grading, and a large number of men specialising in work less 
important, in addition to the numerous superintendents and foremen of the 
various departments. 

Ordinarily, the ratio of the number of men to the amount of lumber is 
between one and one-and-a-half to each one thousand feet of daily cut, de- 
pending principally upon the character of the product. For example, a mill 
having a capacity of 100,000 board feet per day and producing principally 
rough, green lumber employs only from 90 to 100 men; while a plant of 
the same size producing a variety of kiln dried planing mill products and a 
large amount of dressed or air seasoned lumber often employs from 140 to 
150 men. 



ORGANIZATION 

The division of responsibility is not uniform at Douglas fir plants, but 
the following organization chart shows the general scheme followed in many 
of the larger operations. The plan is not intended as a model but merely 
indicates general practice in the plants of the region. In the smaller plants, 
the yard and kilns, and sometimes the planing mill also, are under one fore- 
man; while in the largest plants, even the shipping department, the storage 
shed or sheds, and the transportation system are each under a separate 
foreman. 



ORGANIZATION CHART OF A DOUGLAS FIR LUMBER 
MANUFACTURING PLANT 



Board of niiectors* 



General 



Manager* 



S ales Manag er 
Sales Force 



Superintendent 



Office Manager 



Plant Force 



Planing Mill 
( Fo reman) 



Machining 



Bundling 




Grinding 



Grading 



Blower 



Office Force 



Yard 
(Foreman) 



^rting 



Piling 



Transportation 



Unpiliiif 



Storage Shed 



Shipping 



Sawmill and Pond 
(Foreman) 



Sawing 



r 

Filing 



Edgini 



Trimming 



Oiling 



l>ath 



Resawing 



Millwrighting 



Wood 



Burner 



Power Plant 
Engineer 



Machine and Black- 
smith Shops 
Macliinists 



] )ry Kilns 
Foreman 



Power 



Steam 



Stacking 



Unstacking 



Light 



Water 



Drying Sortiiii 



May also direct the logging plant. 



SITE SELECTION 

In selecting a site for a lumber manufacturing plant, consideration is 
given to all the factors which affect either the cost of production or the 
efficiency of the operation. These factors are not always of the same rel- 
ative importance but vary with the conditions in each case. The order in 
which they are placed here is, therefore, without significance. 

SIZE AND COST OF SITES 

The size of sawmill sites required for mills of various capacities depends 
upon the provisions for log storage and lumber storage. To some extent it 
depends also upon the character of product manufactured. 

The size of log pond or water area for log storage is obviously dependent 
upon the minimum and maximum quantity of logs to be held in reserve. 
Mills located in the large log markets of the region, such as Willapa Har- 
bor, Grays Harbor, Puget Sound, the Columbia River, and Coos Bay, require 
small storage areas because they can always draw on the market should the 
supply from their own camps be temporarily shut off. Mills entirely depen- 
dent on their own or any single source of supply must provide for sufficient 
log storage to keep the plant in operation during interruptions in log deliv- 
ery, which are quite frequent even under the best conditions. Representative 
log storage areas for rail and cargo mills are shown below. Many mills are 
operating with less storage facilities than the minimum shown, but usually 
only when other conditions make it impossible to obtain larger areas at 
reasonable cost. 

$IZK«$ OF SITES FOR MILLS OF A ARIOUS CAPACITIES 

Annual cut 
Class of mill I>og storage 

of million (pond) Plant Yard Total, 

mill board feet acres* acres acres acres 

Rail 8-10 2-5 3-5 2-3 7-13 

Rail 15-20 3-12 5-10 4- 6 12-28 

Rail 30-40 5-20 10-15 8-12 23-47 

Rail 60-70 10-30 15-20 12-lfi 37-66 

Cargo 30-40 3-10 12-18 3- 6 18-34 

Cargo 60-70 5-20 18-22 6- 8 29-50 

' At rail mills this depends upon log supply desired. 

Mills planned to supply the rail trade must provide for large seasoning 
yards to remove the surplus moisture from their stock before shipment. For 
this reason the rail mills require larger yard area than cargo mills, at which, 
pending the arrival of vessels, the lumber can be piled on the docks or on 
scows because water lumber rates aye not based upon weight, but upon 
space occupied. The areas given for lumber storage are typical and do not 
represent extremes. Some cargo mills handle considerable rail business and 
often have yards as large as those of strictly rail mills. 

The total area shown for rail and cargo mills includes areas occupied by 
buildings, roadways, docks and platforms, and those made necessary by in- 
surance regulations. Because the dock sites are included in these figures, 
the total areas for cargo mills are greater than those for rail mills. Fre- 
quently they are the same for rail as for cargo mills because the spaces 
used by the planing mills and kilns at rail mills are eliminated at cargo 
mills. 

The cost of mill sites varies from a few dollars un acre in unsettled re- 
gions to several thousand dollars an acre in or near large cities. Cargo 
mills very frequently have costly sites because of the frontage on navigable 
water. Such frontage inside of city limits often costs as much as a thousand 
dollars per linear foot. Many mills are now located on such sites, but they 

8 



can not be considered an economic success unless the community is devel- 
oping so rapidly that appreciation offsets the high carrying charges on the 
property. 

From the standpoint of cost of site, the ideal location is one which com- 
bines shipping facilities with a minimum outlay of money, since the value 
or volume of business conducted per square foot of area occupied is exceed- 
ingly small. Generally speaking, it is inadvisable to locate a sawmill on 
land worth more than $1,000 per acre, unless there is sufficient timber to 
furnish a supply lasting several decades or unless it is increasing in value, 
since the high overhead cost is seldom offset by factors making such a lo- 
cation desirable. 

Sawmill sites, like those of other industries, vary so greatly with condi- 
tions that it is very difficult to give representative figures for site costs. 

The following may serve as a guide. 

COST OF SITES PER ACRE 

Url)an Suburlian f'oimtry 

Inland sites $1,000- $3,000 $300-$!, 000 $10- $300 

Tidewater sites $3.000-$10.000 $1.000-$3.000 $500-$1,000 

These costs depend largely upon the shape of the property, especially for 
tidewater sites, since the amount of water front is an important factor. 

FUTURE VALUE OF SITE 

Possible increase in site value is naturally most to be expected in urban 
or close-in suburban localities. Most of the mills now located in or near 
the center of fairly large cities were built when such places were small. 
Sites which were bought at from $100 $200 an acre are now worth from 
$10,000 to $20,000 an acre, and are held and used as sawmill property only 
because continued increase in value offsets the high carrying charges. 

In rural districts the coming of a large mill usually increases the value of 
all land in the vicinity, the increase being in direct proportion to the extent 
of permanent development in the immediate territory. Where clearings are 
made for the construction of small mills, the value of the site at the expira- 
tion of the cutting operation is often not greater than that of the cleared 
land. If the site and surrounding land is not suitable for agriculture or min- 
eral development and similar uses, the land may reach its highest value 
when used as a mill site, and when the mill is removed the entire area is a 
barren waste, which causes an actual depreciation in all land values in the 
territory. Should the land become reforested, naturally or artificially, the 
site might resume its normal value or even acquire a higher one. 

TAXES • 

Those mills located within the corporate limits of cities and towns are 
subject to high city taxes and do not enjoy any special advantages over 
those located just outside the corporate limits, except where appreciation 
in property values and sales of slabwood are sufficient to offset increased 
taxes. 

FIRE INSURANCE 

Mills inside the city limits may enjoy reduced insurance rates owing to 
the proximity of city fire fighting equipment, but there is frequently adjoin- 
ing property which increases the risk of fire and offsets the advantage. Mill 
fires are usually of internal origin, so that city mills and suburban mills are 
forced to equip their plants with the same character of fire fighting appar- 
atus and to arrange them so as to prevent the spread of fire. City plants 

9 



are also necessarily congested because of the high cost of the site. This 
adjacency of the several buildings and yard brings about a higher insurance 
rate. The character of industries on adjoining property is to be carefully 
considered; for unless fire walls or lanes are used there is great danger 
from fire from exterior sources. 

LABOR SUPPLY 

Mills in isolated regions are very frequently forced to employ an unstable 
class of labor, since married men with families do not care to go into re- 
gions where the children are unable to go to school. The unmarried men, 
who can more easily be induced to work in remote regions, are inclined to 
stay only a short time, and, for this reason, often do not work as hard as 
men desiring to make a permanent place. 

Large operators employing a considerable number of men can afford to 
provide the schools and entertainment demanded by men with families. They 
are therefore able to keep a better class of men at their plants at all times, 
even in remote regions. 

Whether labor may be readily secured must also be considered. It is 
therefore best, wherever possible, to locate the plant close to a fair-sized 
town or city. In remote regions it is difficult to obtain men on short notice. 
Frequently railroad transportation must be furnished, for men out of work 
seldom have sufficient ready money for even short trips. At plants located 
near fair-sized towns or cities there is usually an abundance of men to be 
had, even on short notice, and the work at the mill is not seriously handi- 
capped when a man or several men quit. The knowledge that there are 
plenty of men to take their places also tends to increase efficiency among 
the employees. 

WATER SUPPLY 

Clear, soft water for boilers, fire protection, and drinking purposes is a 
great asset to a sawmill. Little difficulty has been experienced in finding 
this in the Douglas fir region, although one or two mills have been forced 
to install rather expensive water works. Some mills are fortunate in being 
able to use city water at a nominal cost. 

The water item is ordinarily of importance from a standpoint of cost 
only where water development is expensive or charges for city water are 
high. It is a very important item, however, where artificial log ponds are 
necessary and the supply of water limited. 

Mills which do not have log ponds are forced to pay $1.00 a hundred more 
for their fire insurance than those where so-called "wet logs" are cut. 

POWER SUPPLY 

In the case of steam mills, there are no unusual features which connect 
power development with plant location. In the case of electric mills, the 
possibility of obtaining cheap hydro-electric power, through development or 
purchase, should be kept in mind as it may be possible to obtain such at 
a cost less than that of the steam power if the plants are located advan- 
tageously. Assuming that the fuel of a sawmill costs nothing the only 
costs of power generation are the interest on the power plant investment, 
and the wEiges for attendance on the boilers and engines, so that, for con- 
tinuous operation the steam plant will probably be the more economical. 
The economy of purchased power is particularly apparent at mills which 
can dispose of their waste at a profit. The income from waste sale will 
then write-off a part of the power bill and in this especial case that which 

10 



would be fuel at no cost, as assumed above, is here a saleable product 
and therefore chargeable against the plant if used for boiler firing at the 
mill. The size of the mill has much to do with the quantity of scrap or 
waste made. Bearing in mind then the last argument, it is often advisable 
and economical for a plant to buy a portion of its power (electrical) and 
make the balance, the proportion of power made at the sawmill to that 
bought being determined by the quantity of waste (depending upon the size 
and nature of the mill) and its relative value in dollars for boiler fire on the 
one hand or as a saleable product or by-product on the other. In the case 
of long or frequent shut-downs the electric system will eliminate all of the 
costs mentioned during such idle periods, but it must be remembered that 
in any case steam is necessary for the operation of log turners, kickers, car- 
riage feeds and other control equipment. Again, sawmill plants fortunately 
located can frequently sell sufficient surplus power to reduce materially the 
cost of that which they utilize. 

COST OF MILL CONSTRUCTION 

The cost of building a sawmill is in direct proportion to the accessibility 
of labor, brick, cement, equipment, timber, and other elements entering into 
its construction. Sites remote from main line railroads or at points not ac- 
cessible by rail cost from 10 to 25 per cent more to build on than those 
near main lines. This is due to the high cost of delivering the materials 
and to the extra charges made by carpenters, masons, mechanics, and other 
laborers needed on the work. 

Plants located on tide lands and on sites where foundations are difficult 
cost a great deal more than those for which special construction is unneces- 
sary. The construction of docks for cargo shipments, dredging, excavating 
for log ponds, draining, grading for yard, setting of special footings, and 
other factors abnormally increase the cost of constructing many mills. 

FACILITIES FOR REPAIRS 

Mills located close to manufacturing centers do not require elaborate 
machine shops^ for repairing broken parts and making new equipment needed 
on short notice. They frequently do have such shops, but this is customary 
only in the very large plants having enough work to enable them to operate 
such a shop on a paying basis. 

In isolated regions it is usually necessary for even the smaller mills to 
have complete machine shops, for any delay in replacing broken parts greatly 
reduces the productivity of the plant. The overhead expense in operating a 
sawmill is usually so great that the most important feature of mill manage- 
ment is to keep the plant running constantly. This overhead expense 
amounts to from $100 to $200 a day in plants of the usual size; so that the 
additional expense of maintaining a machine shop, even though it is oper- 
ated at a slight loss, is entirely justified by the important part the shop 
plays in the continuous operation of the plant. 

The main point to be borne in mind in considering the necessity for op- 
erating a machine shop is the ability to obtain parts without delay. Where 
the delays are short, it is better to lose a small amount of time than to in 
crease the investment as much as is necessary to properly equip a machine 
shop, although some operators believe that the saving incident to being able 
to purchase rough castings makes a shop always more or less desirable. 

Mills located in inaccessible regions frequently avoid shut-downs by keep- 
ing on hand duplicate parts of all the vital breakable equipment. "Where 
many parts must be kept on hand, this practice greatly increases the in- 

11 



vestment, but the saving on one breakdown will frequently pay a year's inter- 
est on the entire stock of duplicates. The amount of money which should be 
spent in this way and the kind of parts which should be kept on hand are 
determined by estimating the possibility of breaking each part and the loss 
in overhead expense for the period required to obtain the parts from supply 
houses or to manufacture them in company shops. 

STORAGE FACILITIES 

Nearly any site can be equipped for log storage, provided a sufficient 
water supply is available. The ideal storage is in lakes or sloughs where 
the water is not affected by tides and currents. A few piles for anchoring 
the boom sticks to form a booming ground or for attaching the rafts is all 
that is required. Where these lakes or sloughs freeze they are somewhat 
less desirable because provision must be made for heating the log pond. This 
is usually done by the use of exhaust steam from the engines. 

Salt water log ponds are very satisfactory in protected situations, al- 
though it is necessary to make special provision for the rise and fall of the 
tides. The tides also increase the difficulty of feeding the logs into the log 
slip, because of the current. Salt water ponds in partially exposed sites re- 
quire large boom sticks and special devices to prevent the logs from being 
carried away by the waves and undertow. Logs stored for a long time in 
salt water inhabited by teredos and other borers are likely to be attacked 
and partially destroyed. 

Rivers and streams sometimes must be dredged. And they have other 
objectionable features. The current causes difficulty in sorting and handling 
logs, often necessitating the services of an extra boom man. During the 
high water period when the streams are swift, rafts of logs frequently break 
loose and are carried away. These rafts either are recovered at considerable 
expense or are a complete loss. 

The swift river currents frequently carry debris, which is deposited on 
the foot-sheave of the log slip and is likely to put the slip out of commis- 
sion during the high water period. Many mills have been troubled in this 
way. In addition to shutting the mill down it sometimes makes necessary 
the hiring of divers to remove the deposit before the slip can be properly 
operated. A hinged slip (Fig. 1) eliminates this trouble in getting at the 
foot sheave. 

The cost of constructing a yard suitable for storing and seasoning lumber 
is an important item. If the land is at all wet. drainage must be provided, 
for certain species of wood cannot be seasoned on swampy sites without 
staining or mildew. Ample room must be provided for storing several 
months' cut, since the fluctuating demand for lumber makes a uniform dis- 
position of the manufactured product impossible. The topography and geog- 
raphy of the lumber storage area are important economic features. Artificial 
yards are frequently built by filling in low land with refuse from the mill. 
This method has been successfully used, but is objectionable because it in- 
creases the fire hazard. 

It has not been the practice in the past to air seasan much of the Doug- 
las fir lumber and the lumber storage area has, therefore, not been so im- 
portant an item in selecting a site. Of recent years there has been a greater 
tendency to dry the stock before shipment, so that the storage area is now 
considered one of the principal factors in mill site selection. 

High valued property necessitates reducing the yard space to a minimum. 
This frequently leads to inadequate space and necessitates group piling of 
several kinds or grades of lumber, requiring unnecessary labor in preparing 
lumber for shipment when given sizes and grades are ordered. The area 

12 




13 



should be sufficiently large to avoid undue rehandling in selecting lumber foi 
shipment, even though the investment is materially increased, since it costs 
a minimum of 25 cents a thousand every time lumber is handled. 



DISPOSAL OF WASTE 

Sawmills located in or near fair-sized cities have an opportunity to dis- 
pose of the slabs and edgings for household fuel and in the "hogged" form, 
for boiler plant fuel. This is a decided advantage; for it reduces' the size 
of or Eliminates the costly refuse burners, and produces a revenue of from 
$1.00 to $1.50 per cord, which amounts to from 40 to 65 cents per thousand 
feet. Rural mills usually have no use for this material except in the manu- 
facture of lath, and are frequently forced to dispose of all their waste by 
destroying it in refuse burners or using it to fill in low ground around the 
plant. 

DELIVERY OF RAW MATERIAL 

The accessibility of the timber is an important feature of mill location, 
since cheap transportation of the raw material is necessary. Water trans- 
portation is the cheapest and is used wherever logs can be towed or driven 
without too great loss. The following tabulation of water rates from Puget 
Sound should serve as a guide to the relative merits of rail and water trans- 
portation when the selection of a site is under consideration. 



Cost per 
1,000 hoard feet 
Distances log scale (1916) 

0-15 miles $0.15 

15-20 
20-30 
30-40 
40-50 
50-60 



.20 


70-80 ' 


.25 


80-90 ' 


.30 


90-100 ' 


.35 


100-110 ' 


.40 


110-120 ' 



Cost per 
1,000 board feet. 
Distances log scale (1916) 
60-70 miles $0.50 



.55 
.60 
.65 
.70 
.75 



The above applies to rafts of 300,000 feet or more, this being the mini- 
mum any raft is considered to contain in figuring a towing charge. Towing 
is done at the owner's risk. 



Following are rail transportation costs: 



Cost per 
1.000 board feet 
Distances log scale (1916) 

0-10 miles $1.00 

10-15 
15-20 
20-25 
25-30 
30-35 
35-40 
40-45 
45-50 
50-55 



Cost per 
1,000 board feet. 
Distances log scale (1916) 
55-60 miles $1.75 



1.25 


60-65 


1.35 


65-70 


1.40 


70-75 


1.45 


75-80 


1.50 


80-85 


1.55 


85-90 


1.60 


90-100 


1.65 


100-110 


1.70 





1.80 
1.85 
1.90 
1.95 
2.00 
2.05 
2.10 
2.15 



Minimum load 7,000 feet per car. 



Good sites must be accessible for delivery of logs regardless of tides and 
stream fluctuations. The character of the log pond which will be available 
at the mill must be duly considered; floods and swift currents are difficulties 
in fresh water, while tides and breakers cause trouble in salt water. 

SHIPPING FACILITIES 

A good mill location should permit of either rail or cargo shipments 
direct from the plant. Interior mills will be handicapped in water ship- 
ments and water-locked mills in rail shipments. These difficulties may be 



14 



largely overcome by equipping water-locked mills with railroad car barges 
and by using barges in lightering where mills are not accessible to ocean 
going vessels. In the Puget Sound region railroads furnish free car barge 
service to mills located within the limits of their terminal rates, but this 
free service applies only from competitive points, otherwise a slight charge 
is made. 

Approximately 75 per cent of all Douglas fir lumber is marketed by rail 
or wagon. Accessibility to rail shipping is at the present time of greater 
importance than accessibility to cargo shipping, and there are very few 
mills now in operation which do not have rail connections either direct or 
through the use of barges. 

The cost of constructing spurs from the main or tap line is important. 
The policy of roads is to have the user bear all of the expense of installing 
a great number of spur tracks, except that the railroad furbishes the track 
metal with certain rental charges. This applies only to ordinary short com- 
mercial spurs. 

Although mills may have good rail shipping facilities from the standpoint 
of topography, they are frequently handicapped by geographic and other 
conditions which necessitate extra freight costs in marketing the product. 
These extra costs may apply to all shipments or to shipments to certain 
points or for delivery on certain railroads. They are called differentials, and 
are a very important item in site selection. They usually occur where the 
mill is located on a small independent road connecting with a transconti- 
nental carrier. They may, however, occur on "tap lines" of large transcon- 
tinental roads, or even on main lines of transcontinental roads, should the 
aestination necessitate routing the shipment for delivery on a competing line. 

The possibility of securing cars in quantity and variety on short notice 
is important. In certain localities and at isolated points where no stations 
exist it is often very difficult to obtain cars, at least the size and style of car 
required to transport a given class of material. Box and cattle cars can be 
used for kiln-dried lumber but gondolas and fiats are entirely unsuited to 
this material. Timbers can not be easily loaded into closed cars. Silo stock 
and other long material necessitate large cars with open ends to facilitate 
loading. During the car shortages of 1907 and 1916, those firms nearest to 
the railroad centers were best able to get cars, although all mills' were more 
or less handicapped. 

Railroads frequently do not furnish freight service to isolated shippers 
more than once or twice a week, making it necessary to anticipate car needs 
and greatly delaying the dispatch of rush orders. The infrequent service 
often necessitates larger spur tracks and platforms, and may greatly in- 
crease demurrage charges where cars are not ready for shipment at speci- 
fied times. 

The ability to make direct cargo shipments is a great site asset, and is 
especially so now that lumber carrying steamers are plying through the 
Panama Canal to eastern and European markets. Deep water is preferred, 
since lumber can then be picked up from the mill docks and loaded direct. 
Where this is not possible, it is good practice to have a fleet of scows upon 
which the lumber can be stored during the cutting period, awaiting the ar- 
rival of the steamers. The scows can be towed to the vessel and the loading 
done at no greater expense than from the docks. Lumber handled in this 
way is' carried to the boat at the owner's risk. Should the scows capsize or 
material be lost overboard, the steamer owner is not responsible. This and 
the expense of maintaining the scows are disadvantages avoided by select- 
ing deep water sites. But a site where scows can be used is more valuable 
than one inaccessible to any kind of water transportation, since water ship- 
ments from inland plants necessitate rehandling the lumber at the railroad 
terminal, as well as the payment of short haul freight costs. 

15 



CONTACT WITH MARKET 

Contact with the lumber market in the large centers, such as Portland, 
Seattle. Tacoma. and similar points, is an important factor in the location of 
mills. Mills in remote places are frequently forced to maintain offices in 
these market centers at a cost of from $250 to $500 a month in order to be 
in contact with the trade. These offices are usually, but not always, the 
sales offices of the company, so that the sales office is separated from the 
mill, which is generally undesirable. No matter how complete or frequent 
reports of "stock on hand" the mill makes to the sales office, the sales 
office without a knowledge of the class of logs available is at a disadvantage. 
Letters and telephone conversations with the mill and woods superintendents 
are never as satisfactory as interviews "on the ground." If the sales offices 
were at the mill, the sales manager, through contact with the mill, the stock 
and the superintendents and others, would be able to tell at once whether 
or not an order could be accepted for immediate delivery or if not whether 
conditions would warrant accepting the order for special manufacture or 
future filling in ordinary course. Orders for ordinary material can be han- 
dled through separate sales offices without fear of complication, but special 
sizes, grades, and products must be taken up with the mill superintendent 
and the foreman. Furthermore, contact means better cooperation between 
sales and maunfacturing departments, for they can then look at an order 
from the same angle. 

RETAIL TRADE 

Urban and suburban mills almost invariably operate a retail department, 
and in this way often receive a very fair price for a considerable portion of 
their output. The retail market is one of the most attractive features of 
city sites, and where there is a reasonable demand for lumber this part of 
the business frequently produces sufficient revenue to offset a large part of 
the extra cost of city property. 

Municipal development and competition are the important factors influ- 
encing the amount of revenue "to be expected from the retail department. 
Where competition is keen many manufacturers prefer not to enter the re- 
tall trade owing to the additional expense of teams, trucks, supervision, 
bad accounts, and other factors involved in this class of sales. 

CLIMATE 

Plants located where the climate permits continuous operation throughout 
the year have an enormous advantage over those which are able to oper- 
ate only eight or nine months. The effect of seasonal operations on various 
factors such as overhead expense, character and efficiency of labor, depre- 
ciation, maintenance, and investment, is obvious. In the Douglas fir region 
most mills can operate throughout the year. 



16 



SAWMILL PLANT 

A typical lumber manufacturing plant in the Douglas fir region is com- 
posed of such units as (a) a log storage pond, or boom, if on a large body 
of water, (b) the sawmill proper, (c) sorting and grading tables and sheds, 
(d) transportation equipment for moving the product about the plant, (e) 
dry kilns and auxiliary equipment, (f) a storage and seasoning yard, (g) a 
rough lumber storage shed, (h) a planing mill for surfacing and matching 
the various forms, (i) a dressed lumber storage shed, (j) a shipping spur or 
spurs, (k) a power plant, (1) a refuse burner, and other less important units. 

The general arrangement of these respective units at a plant of 200,000 
board feet daily capacity is shown in Fig. 2. The relative position of 
each unit depends on such a variety of conditions — size of plant, topog- 
raphy, size of site, character of product, shipping facilities, and similar 
factors— that the arrangement cannot possibly be uniform. The aim in 
each case is efficient routing of the material from the sawmill to and 
through the various departments and thence aboard the cars or to the docks. 
Arrangement is one of the most essential features and one of the most difll- 
cult problems of mill construction, especially where peculiar topography or 
limited space is encountered. 

POND 

The log pond serves three very important functions. It is primarily a 
storage place for logs awaiting the saw. Its greatest advantage over dry 
storage in piles is that the logs are easily handled and sorted to meet sawing 
demands. One man can readiy handle large numbers of logs in a pond, 
while dry storage in large quantities usually requires more men and some 
machinery. The second function is to clean the logs of grit, gravel, and 
other foreign material which would dull the saws. The third is to reduce 
Ihe insurance rate, which is lower in mills cutting wet logs (Page 146). 

Natural log ponds are protected places on lakes, rivers, or oceans; arti- 
ficial ponds are reservoirs made by damming or dredging small streams. 
Natural ponds on lakes are the most desirable in the fir region, for they sel- 
dom freeze and they have none of the objections of river and ocean ponds 
mentioned above. Furthermore, such ponds are very inexpensive, since the 
only cost, exclusive of site cost, is for piling and boom sticks. Artificial 
ponds are the most costly because of the expense connected with damming 
or dredging. In addition, there must be available sufficient water to keep 
such ponds properly filled during the dry season, when summer streamflow 
and maximum evaporation reduce the volume of water. A high average 
value of evaporation in the fir region is about 12 inches per month; and 
where the volume of water is at all questionable, the services of a hydro 
engineer are necessary to make tests on streamflow, vaporation, and seepage, 
and to insure proper dam construction to conserve as much as possible of 
the available water. 

The cost of the log pond varies so much that it is difficult to give cost 
figures which will do more than serve as a rough estimate. 

Dams built to form ponds for Douglas fir mills have cost from $2,000 
to $10,000, depending upon the size of the pond required and the height and 
character of the dam. Timber dams of either hewn or sawn pieces are most 
common. The piling and boom sticks used in fastening and corraling logs 
in both natural and artificial ponds cost from $500 to $1,500, depending upon 
the size of the pond and the amount of sorting necessary. When logs are 
delivered by rail, a log dump long enough to provide for several cars is usu- 
ally necessary. These dumps cost from $1.00 to $12.00 per linear foot, and 
they are often several hundred feet long. 

17 



From one to three men are required on the log pond. This work consists 
of unloading cars when logs are delivered by rail, scaling or counting logs 
which come in rafts, bucking, pushing the logs through the water to within 
pike pole reach of the log haul or hoist, and feeding the logs to the hoist. 
Sometimes at small mills the pond man operates the hoist and looks after 
the deck, but at large plants the pond men to not leave the pond. 

The cost of operating the log pond varies with the size of the mill, the 
method of delivering logs, and similar factors. It runs from 2 to 9 cents, 
the average cost being about 5 cents, per thousand board feet. Where no 
bucking is done, the average is close to 3 cents per 1,000. The pond supply 
and repair items are usually included in the general mill figures and are 
ordinarily too small to need special discussion. 

Many Douglas fir log ponds are equipped with drag saws (Fig. 3) to cut 
long logs to desired lengths for filling specific orders. This practice assists 
in getting out rush orders for desired lengths with the minimum waste and 
makes it possible to have the bucking done by skilled men who know the 
quality of logs and are able to dissect the tree in such a way as to put the 
clear and common portions into respective logs. 




..UL. 




Fig. 3. Steam drag saw for cutting logs to length on pond. 



Drag saws are designed and built for either steam (Fig. 3) or motor 
drive. They cost about 3350 to $450 (1916) and weigh about 2,200 to 3,500 
pounds, exclusive of steam connections or motor. A 15 H. P. motor costing 
about $325' and weighing approximately 800 pounds is ample. One man can 
handle a machine unassisted. It works very rapidly, cutting a log from 2^ 
to 3 feet in diameter in two or three minutes. 



* 15 h. p. -900 r. p. m. motor with base, pulley and starting compensator 
(1916). 

18 



BUILDINGS 

TYPES 

Every sawmill in this large producing area is of wooden construction. 
The advantages claimed for steel, such as fire resistance, durability, porta- 
bility, and easy retention of alignment of shafting apparently have not offset 
such desirable features of wooden mill buildings as low first cost, easy 
alteration, and resilience — the last an important factor in the wear and 
tear on machines. Furthermore, the temperature in steel mills is said to 
be disagreeably high in summer. Designs for wood frame construction are 
shown in Figs. 4, 5' and 6\ 

FOUNDATION PILING 

Most of the mills are built upon piling because they are located on tide- 
land or river front property. Furthermore, piles are cheap, and little trouble 
has been experienced from either decay or insect attacks. 

The length of the piles varies considerably with the depth of both the 
water and soft earth, but the average length is indicated by the fact that 
more 50 and 60 piles are sold in the region than those of any other length. 
The butt diameters vary with the length of the piles from 14 to 18 inches, 
while the tops vary from 9 to 10 inches. 

The costs of foundations are so extremely variable that it is rather diffi- 
cult to give accurate figures unless at least two of several variables are 
known. The following are the costs of foundation piles installed (exclusive 
of caps) for various lengths and costs of piles, the driving costs being esti- 
mated at $1.50 each for 20 foot; $1.75 for 30 foot; $2.00 for 40 foot; $2.25 for 
50 foot; and $2.50 for 60 foot piles. 

COSTS OF FOUiVDATION PII-ES INSTALLED 

^, . Cost of each pile per linear foot 

Length of _„ _„ 

piles, 5c 6c 7c 8c 9c lOc 

feet Cost of each pile installed 

20 $2.50 $2.70 $2.90 $3.10 $3.30 $3.50 

30 3.25 3.50 3.85 4.15 4.45 4.75 

40 4.00 4.40 4.80 5.20 5.60 6.00 

50 4.75 5.25 5.75 6.25 6.75 7.25 

60 5.50 6.10 6.70 7.30 7.30 8.50 

Piling costs vary with the accessibility of the location, so that only gen- 
eral averages can be given. Representative selling prices of Douglas fir 
piles in 1916 were: 20 foot— 6c, 30 foot— 8c, 40 foot— 9c, 50 foot— 9c, and 60 
foot — 10c. If piles are taken from the woods in connection with a mill's log- 
ging operations, they can often be obtained for less than open market prices. 

CONCRETE PIERS 

Concrete foundations are not extensively used because as a rule they are 
more expensive than piles and their additional durability is seldom de- 
manded, the life of the wooden piles being as long as the life of the average 
mill. Where exceptional permanency is desired or where the character of 
the soil makes pile driving difficult, concrete piers are used. These contain 
from Vz to 2y2 cubic yards of concrete each, depending upon the weight of 
the machines to be installed and the character of the ground. One cubic 
yard is ample for ground having reasonable holding power. The cost per 
square yard varies not only with the size of pier, but also with the availa- 
bility of sand, gravel, and cement, the amount of excavating necessary, and 
to some extent with the form used. The following are approximate figures 
of cost for individual piers of typical sizes. 



^ On page 44-45. 

19 




Fig. 4. Elevation of a single band Douglas Fir sawmill. 
(Designed by Howard B- Oakleaf.) 



•20 



COSTS OP CONCRETE PIERS (1916) 



Size of pier, 
cubic yards 

0.50 . . . 
.75 ... 

1.00 . . . 

1.25 . . . 

1.50 . . . 

1.75 . . . 

2.00 . . . 

2.25 . . . 

2.50 . . . 

2.75 . . . 







Costs 


per cubic 


yard 






6.00 


$ 7.00 


$ 8.00 
Cost of 


$ 9.00 
each pier 


$10.00 
installed 


$11.00 


$12.00 


3.00 


3.50 


4.00 


4.50 


5.00 


5.50 


6.00 


4.50 


5.25 


6.00 


6.75 


7.50 


8.25 


9.00 


6.00 


7.00 


8.00 


9.00 


10.00 


11.00 


12.00 


7.50 


8.75 


10.00 


11.25 


12.50 


13.75 


15.00 


9.00 


10.50 


12.00 


13.50 


15.00 


16.50 


18.00 


10.50 


12.25 


14.00 


15.75 


17.50 


19.25 


21.00 


12.00 


14.00 


16.00 


18.00 


20.00 


22.00 


24.00 


13.50 


15.75 


18.00 


20.25 


22.50 


24.75 


27.00 


15.00 


17.50 


20.00 


22.50 


25.00 


27.50 


30.00 


16.50 


19.25 


22.00 


24.75 


27.50 


30.25 


33.00 



FRAME 

A typical frame is shown in Figs. 4, 5 and 6. The log deck of the 
mill is of much heavier construction than the remainder of the flooring be- 
cause of the severe stress developed in handling the heavy logs at this 
point. The braces shown in the drawings are notched into the sides of the 
posts to increase their efficiency, although this practice is not always fol- 
lowed. Sometimes both ends are merely beveled and spiked; or the braces 
are nailed on the sides of the posts and stringers. 

The lumber used in the frames ordinarily costs from $10 to $12 per thou- 
sand, and the labor of putting it up from $6 to $8 per thousand. There are 
from 60 to 80 pounds of hardware, which costs about three cents per pound, 
used to each thousand board feet of lumber. (Costs of 1915-1916.) 

WALLS AND ROOF 

The walls are usually of 1 x 12 boards, surfaced two sides. They are run 
up and down, and the cracks are covered with flat or OG battens. Recently, 
low grade channel rustic has been substituted for boards. The effect is 
more pleasing and there is little difference In cost. 

The roofs are covered with high grade roofing materials of various kinds. 
Heavy tarred papers are most common, although in some of the better class 
structures the more expensive prepared roofings are used. These materials 
vary in cost from 3 to 5 cents per square foot, depending upon the quality. 

WINDOWS 

The size and number of windows are not uniform, and on the whole 
there is a tendency to reduce too much the areas for light. Factory win- 
dows of the type required for sawmills cost only 15 or 20 cents per square 
foot, and plenty of light can be provided without materially increasing the 
cost of the structure. 

COST 

The following figures give a general idea of the cost of constructing mill 
buildings. They are representative of good construction, but they should 
not be used unless time and data are not available for a more accurate 
estimate. 

COST PER SQUARE FOOT OF AREA COVERED BY BUILDING > 

Heavy 
Item (High) 

Lumber (at $10.00 per 1,000) $0.40 

Labor 30 

Hardware .11 

Roofing 06 

Glazing .06 

Foundations .04 

Miscellaneous^Paintiiig'. etc .03 





I>ight 


tedium 


(Low) 


$0.35 


$0.25 


.25 


.20 


.09 


.07 


.04 


.03 


.05 


.04 


.03 


.02 


.02 


.01 



Total $1.00 $0.83 $(1.62 

These costs are for the building proper. They do not include any labor 

or material used in installing machines. They are for the usual mill with 

two stories for the machinery and a file room on the third floor. They do 

not include leantos or other additions to the main mill. 

* Outside measure. 

21 



SAWMILL MACHINERY 
LOG HOISTS 

The portion of the equipment used to elevate the logs from the pond to 
the mill deck is referred to by a variety of names such as log jack, log haul 
up, log hoist, log lift, and the like. 

The most common type of hoist at the older mills is the endless chain 
type operating in an inclined and arched trough or chute. (Fig. 1). The 
chains are equipped with dogs which grip the log at one or several points 
and convey it up the chute to the deck. Sometimes when this class of hoist 
is used the logs are passed through a powerful water spray which cleans 
them thoroughly for the saw. The lower portion of the hoist shown in the 
illustration is hinged so that the foot-sheave can be repaired. 

The latest kind of hoist is the sling type (Fig. 4), which costs less to 
put in than the old style, and is claimed to be more efficient. Two 
three, or four cables are used to form the sling, depending upon the length 
of the logs. One end of each cable is fastened to the deck at points along 
or near the upper edge, and the other end of each is fastened to a series of 
drums on a shaft mounted upon the roof trusses. By rotating this shaft the 
cables are shortened or lengthened and the sling raised or lowered. Large 
logs can be raised singly and small ones in twos or threes. 

COST 

The old style hoists cost complete (with unloading device) from $4,000 to 
$10,000 (1916), depending upon their length and design. The cost of the 
sling type is shown in detail below. 

COSTS OF SLIXG TYPE HOISTS (1910) 

Item Heavy Medium Light 

Shafting- (and coupling-) per foot $ 4.00 $ 3.00 $ 2.00 

Cable per foot n.22 |.20 0.18 

Drums, each 18.00 15.00 12.00 

?;oxes, each 7.00 6.00 5.00 

Gears and shafting for drive 150.00 125.00 100.00 

POWER 

The size and cost of the motor required for the log hoist depends upon 
the rate at which the log is elevated and the size of the log and equipment. 
The following power data are illustrative: 

Slip hoist: 

Total horizontal length of haul feet 200 

Length of horizontal section (at top) feet 70 

Grade of inclined part (usually 25 to 30 per cent).... per cent 27 

Approximate elevation above water feet 35 

Speed of chain (usually 75 to 100 f. p. m.) ... .feet per minute 45 

Average input — light Kw. 11.7 

Maximum observed input Kw. 70 

Maximum sustained input (duration 50 sec.) Kw. 37 

Estimated average power used, including time idle Kw. 11.2 

Sling hoist: 

Hoisting with 4 1-inch cables feet per minute 15 

Speed of hoisting feet per minute 15 

Input lowering cables Kw. 2.42 

Average input elevating log Kw. 11 

Kicking log up onto deck (instantaneous) Kw. 40-50 

22 



The size and cost of log hoist motors are given below. All are alternating 
current motors. Costs include primary oil switches with overload and low 
voltage protection, necessary drum type controllers and starting resistance. 
No gears included. 

COSTS OF LOG HOIST MOTORS (1916) 

Weight, 
Size of motor pound.s Cost delivered 

15 h. p., 900 r. p. m • 1,450 $471.00 

25 h. p., 900 r. p. m 2.050 600.00 

35 h. p., 900 r. p. m 2,350 671.00 

50 h. p.. 900 r. p. m 2,950 823.00 



LOG DECK 

The log deck (Fig. 4) is that portion of the mill where the logs are 
stored and handled prior to and during the sawing operation. The decks are 
ordinarily made single as shown, but may be double, triple, or even quad- 
ruple in the very large mills, the general arrangement and equipment being 
about the same regardless of the number of decks under one roof. Single 
deck mills are divided into right and left hand — the one shown is right hand. 
The decks should be made steep enough to prevent flat or crooked logs from 
lodging part way down the^ skids. 

The length of the deck varies with the length of the logs to be handled, 
and the width with the number of logs to be stored. Ten to twelve feet of 
storage is ample at fir mills of ordinary size, since there are seldom more 
than two or three logs on the deck at once. 

The deck skids are usually spaced from 8 to 12 feet apart; the number of 
skids varies, of course, with the length of logs. The skids are usually made 
of 14 X 18 or 14 x 20 timbers, shod with steel plates or railroad rails. The 
metal costs from $20.00 to $25.00 for each skid. 

The deck is ordinarily in charge of the man who operates the log lift. It 
is his duty to keep a supply of logs ready for the sawyer. He also inspects 
each log to see that it does not contain rocks, dog points, or other material 
which will dull or scratch the saws. Where the logs are scaled to determine 
roughly the output of the mill, the scaling is done by the deckman. In large 
plants it is frequently assigned to a man who does nothing else. 



LOG STOPS AND LOADERS 

Log stops and loaders are used to detain the logs at the foot of the in- 
clined deck until the sawyer is ready for a new log on the carriage. A 
typical stop is shown in Fig. 7. The stop consists of hooked arms with 
curved bases, fastened at the center to a horizontal shaft running across 
the deck parallel to the carriage track. When the stop is at rest the 
hooked part of the arm extends from 12 to 18 inches above the deck skids 
and effectively holds the log. As soon as the sawyer is ready for a new log, 
he admits steam into the cylinder by moving a lever. This forces the base 
of the stop up and the arm down, permitting the first log to pass to the car- 
riage and detaining the next, temporarily with the base and permanently 
with the hooked arm, which comes up as the base is lowered. 

Log stops are made in various sizes for handling large, medium, and small 
logs. The three sizes most used at fir mills are shown in the following 
statement of costs. 

23 



COSTS OF LOG STOPS (1916) 



Size of 
cylinder, 
in. 
14 
16 
18 
These 



Size of 

shaft, 

in. 

costs 



-3 -arm- 



Weight, 

IVjs. 

3,000 

6,000 

7,000 

are for 



Cost 
delivered, 

$ 
300.00 
400.00 
500.00 

complete 



Weight 

lbs. 

3,500 

7,000 

8,500 

stops 



-4-arm- 



and 



Cost 
delivereS, 

$ 
350.00 
475.00 
600.00 

loaders 



Weight, 
lbs. 
4,000 
8,000 

10,000 



-5-arm- 



Cost 

delivered, 

$ 

400.00 
550.00 
700.00 



with cylinders, bell 



cranks, levers, boxes, and the usual amount of shafting. The cost of installa- 
tion is from $50.00 to $60.00. 




Fig. 7. Log stop and loader. 
24 



LOG TURNERS 

As the name implies, log turners are used to change the position of logs 
on the carriage to permit squaring them up and obtaining as much wide, 
clear lumber as possible by taking the boards from the surfaces of all four 
sides before breaking the squared timbers into desired thicknesses for re- 
sawing. Since the amount of time required in turning the log affects the 
output of the mill, it is essential that the turners be designed to operate as 
rapidly as the weight of the logs will permit. 

There are three types of log turners in use at Douglas fir mills, Simonson 
turners (Fig. 8), niggers (Fig. 9), and overhead turners (Fig. 10). In choos- 
ing a turner for Douglas fir mills, it is necessary to keep in mind the diam- 
eter and length of the logs to be handled, since each of the turners is best 
suited to logs of certain sizes, although they can be used on logs of practi- 
cally any dimensions. Sometimes all three are installed in the same mill. 

The Simonson turner is the one usually employed in the larger and more 
efficient Douglas fir mills, since it is designed to handle large, long, and 
heavy logs with great rapidity. It is the only type of turner which turns 
the logs away from the carriage knees, and thus causes less wear and tear 
on this portion of the equipment. The power is supplied by two rocking 
horizontal cylinders, from 10 to 14 inches in diameter and from 5 to 6 feet 
long (depending upon the size of logs for which the turner is to be used), 
placed on the floor of the deck just below the level of the deck skids. The 
position of the turner in the mill is shown in Fig. 4. The piston rod of one 
cylinder is connected to an elbow by a hooked arm in such a manner that 
as the piston rod advances the arm is unfolded and the hook at the tip of 
the arm thrown over and caught on the top of the log. The other end of 
the elbow is arranged to turn freely upon a heavy shaft running parallel to 
the carriage rails beneath the deck skids. The piston rod of the second 
cylinder is connected to the extreme end of one of several push arms keyed 
to this shaft. 




Fig. 8. Simonson type of log turner. 

25 



To turn a log, the sawyer by means of a single lever admits steam to 
the first cylinder, which advances the piston and unfolds the elbow arm, 
throwing the hook upon the top of the log. Steam is then admitted to the 
other end of the cylinder and the piston rod recedes, drawing the hooked 
arm back and pulling the log down upon the deck skids. At the same time 
that the log drops upon the deck skids the sawyer, by moving the lever at 
another angle, admits steam into the second cylinder, causing the piston rod 
to advance and moving the group of arms against the log. This slides the 
log back upon the carriage in position for cutting. As the log falls upon the 
deck, special steam skids are raised enough to permit the log to slide back 
upon the head blocks without catching on the nose of any one of them. The 
original method of raising these skids was by means of an eccentric cam 
attached to the horizontal shaft, but since this limited the raising of the 
skids to times when the turner shaft was moved to a definite position it 
was not very effective. The recent improvements in the construction of 
these machines provide for independent skids which are operated by a foot 
lever. 

The following table gives the weights and costs of Simonson log turners 
of typical sizes. The number ot arms necessary depends upon the length of 
logs to be handled, and the size of the cylinders upon the weight or diam- 
eter of the logs. 



AVEIGHTS AXD COSTS OF LOG TURNERS (lOHJ) 

Maximum size of logs 



Size of 


Number 






Approximate 


Cost 


cylinders, 


of 


Diameter, 


Length, 


weight. 


delivered 


in. 


arms 


in. 


ft. 


lbs. 


$ 


10 


3 


72 


24 


8,750 


1,200 


1(1 


4 


72 


50 


10,150 


1,330 


10 


5 


72 


66 


10,750 


1,575 


12 


3 


84 


24 


16,500 


1,950 


12 


4 


84 


50 


20,000 


2,325 


12 


5 


84 


80 


21,750 


2,525 


14 


5 


96 


80 


27,750 


2,975 



These prices are for complete equipment with boxes and shafting, but do 
not include the cost of independent steam lifting skids (Fig. 3). Three such 
skids, weighing approximately 4,200 pounds, cost $500; four skids, weighing 
5,400 pounds, cost $550; and five skids, weighing 6,000 pounds, cost $650. 

The steam nigger is common in pine mills, but has not been e.xtensively 
used in Douglas fir mills because it is not suitable for handling long and 
heavy logs. It is not only difficult to handle such logs with a nigger, but the 
teeth take a chunk out of the side of the log or cant, causing unnecessary 
waste, particularly in the clear wood. Steam niggers, however, have a place 
in fir mills for handling small and short logs; and in modern mills designed 
to cut all sizes of logs a nigger is usually installed for that purpose. This 
gives the sawyer an opportunity to use whichever type of apparatus is bet- 
ter suited to the work at hand and has the added advantage of preventing 
shut downs, should either piece of equipment be disabled. 

Like the Simonson turner, the nigger is operated by the sawyer. To turn 
a log, the sawyer admits steam into the front cylinder, which raises the nig- 
ger, and as it is raised he admits steam into the back cylinder, which holds 
the nigger against the log, causing the teeth to engage in the face of the log 
and turn it against the knees. The nigger can also be used to hold the log 
against the knees while it is being fastened to them and made ready for the 
.sawing operation. 

Of the two sizes of niggers for which prices are given below, the smaller 
is more used, since most of the niggers installed at present in the fir region 
are used in conjunction with Simonson turners and are designed to take care 
only of the smaller and medium-sized logs. 

26 



The niggers with 10" and 12" cylinders (the smaller is that toward the 
log carriage) will lift 9 tons with 100 pounds gage, steam pressure. Niggers 
with 10" and 12" cylinders weigh 5,270 pounds and cost $550; and those with 
12" and 15" cylinders weigh 6,820 pounds and cost $650. 




Fig. 



9. Sleani nigger lype of log turner. 



These costs include a spring floor plate or guide to control the action of 
the nigger and prevent it from damaging the deck and carriage. The plate 
can be seen in Fig. 9 resting on the floor timbers. The estimated cost of 
installing steam niggers is about $50. 

The old style of overhead log turner, or canting gear as it is frequently 
called, is still employed in many mills as an emergency turner for handling 
extra heavy logs, or for use when the other turners are out of order. This 
type of turner is slow and cumbersome, but it is still used to some extent 
in small mills. 

The apparatus (Fig. 10) consists of a drum and chain geared to a shaft 
which is turned by a beveled friction drive. Spur-geared drives are also 
used, especially in shaft-driven mills. The entire mechanism is mounted 
upon the girders directly above the carriage, and the chain is raised or low- 
ered by the operation of a lever placed within the sawyer's reach. At the 

27 



o 



<i' 



> 



\>) 



<s> 



1 



-^ 



o 



1 



1 

I I 



28 





29 



end of the chain is a hook which grasps the log. To turn the log the chain 
is lowered and wrapped around it; then, by reversing the gear, the chain is 
raised and gradually unwound, causing the log to turn to any desired posi- 
tion. The best gears are equipped so that the chain may be lowered rap- 
idly, even though the hoisting is done slowly. The principal advantage of 
this type of turner is that the logs are not badly damaged in turning and 
there is less wear and tear on the carriage and mill than where niggers or 
Sinionson turners are used, since the jarring and pounding is practically 
eliminated. 

Overhead turners are built in a variety of sizes, according to the amount 
and weight of the chain to be used, which in turn dependsi upon the size of 
logs to be handled. A representative turner weighs about 3,000 pounds and 
costs approximately $275 (1916), including chain, boxes, and usual parts. 





Fig. 10. Overhead type of log turner. 



ROCK SAWS 

When logs are received at the mill covered with grit, gravel, and other 
foreign material as a result of "driving," a rock saw is usually employed to 
clean a path in the cutting line of the band saw. This practice prevents 
unnecessary wear and tear on the band and increases the cutting life of the 
teeth. 

30 



The rock saw is hung at the end of a counter-weighted arm suspended 
above the log carriage parallel to the log. The saw and arm are raised or 
lowei'ed for logs of various sizes and for taper and other irregularities. It 
is operated by a boy, who pulls the saw down into the cut or allows it to 
rise to obtain the desired position. The sawdust thrown off from this saw 
is removed through a "blower pipe" similar to that employed for carrying 
away planer shavings. These rock saws complete with countershaft and 
pulleys, but exclusive of the motor and blower, cost approximately $100.00. 
The saw is usually from 24 to 26 inches in diameter, 3 gauge, and has a 
kerf of 1^8 of an inch. Because of this wide kerf, it is the duty of the rock 
sawyer to prevent the saw cutting into the wood proper, the cut being made 
through the bark only. 

A 15 horsepower motor is ordinarily required to operate the saw. The 
following are represeniative figures for power demand: 

Kw. H. p. 

Input running light 3.5 4.7 

Maximum instantaneous input 34.0 45.5 

Sustained input during cut 10.0 13.4 

Average input throughout day 4.85 6.5 

An additional 15 horsepower motor is required to run the 3o-inch cen- 
trifugal blower fan which removes the sawdust. The power demand for 
such a fan run at 2,300 r. p. m. is as follows: 

Kw. H. p. 

Maximum input 15.2 20.4 

Minimum input 11.0 14.7 

Average input 11.55 15.4 

The cost of blower fans and piping for use in this class of work is given 
under the discussion of blower systems. 

A 15 h. p. motor, of 550 or higher voltage, billed complete with base, 
pulley and starting compensator weighs about 1,120 pounds and costs ap- 
proximately $350 (1916). 

LOG CARRIAGE 

The log carriage is the vehicle upon which the log is passed against the 
head saw in the main sawing operation (Figs. 4, 5 and 11). The carriage 
proper consists of three essential units, — the frame and trucks for support- 
ing and conveying the equipment and log, the blocks, knees, and dogs for 
holding the log, and the set works for advancing the log for the desired 
thickness of cant to be cut. 

The frame is made from 32 to 50 feet long, depending upon the average 
length of the logs — trailers are used for extra long logs. The representative 
carriage length in the fir region is 40 feet. The width (over all) varies from 

1 




Fig. 11. 72 in by 32 ft. three-block log carriage. 

31 



8 to 11 feet according to the maximum diameter of logs to be cut, 10 feet 
being the usual. The frame is ordinarily of wood and can be made at the 
plant during the construction of the mill. Steel carriage frames can be pur- 
chased, but they are much more costly and less resilient than those of wood. 
The trucks are cast steel, each set having two axles with either 2, 3 or 4 
wheels (14 to 18 inches in diameter) on each. One set of trucks is placed 
under each block. The ordinary diameter of carriage wheels is 16 inches, 
and there are usually three to the axle, since a three rail carriage track is 
most often used. The rear wheels, which are grooved to fit the rear rail, 
hold the carriage on the track and retain a straight cutting line. 

In single cutting band mills the trucks are equipped with an automatic 
offset device which shifts the carriage frame back on the axles half an inch 
or so away from the cutting line to prevent striking the saw on the return 
or non-cutting stroke. A control lever operated by the setterman prevents 
this offset in backing out of the cut when a false start is made. 

The bolsters or skids upon which the log rests are called blocks. They 
are divided so as to encase a screw used in moving the knees, which latter 
they also support and guide. The size of the carriage is measured by the 
length of the blocks, or rather, the distance between the cutting line and 
the face of the knees when moved back the maximum distance on the blocks. 
This ranges from 60 inches to 84 inches, but the prevailing is 72 inches. 
From 3 to 5 blocks are used on the main carriage and one on each trailer. 
Thirty-two foot carriages have 3 blocks; forty foot, 4; and fifty foot, 5. 
The distance between the blocks varies to accommodate the variety of log 
lengths to best advantage. The following are typical: between blocks (cen- 
ter to center) 1st and 2nd — 11 feet, 2nd and 3rd — 11 to 12 feet, 3rd and 4th 
—12 feet, 4th and 5th— 12 feet; first trailer 12 feet, second trailer 14 feet. 

To obtain the maximum length of log a certain number of blocks will 
cut, add the distances between the blocks and increase the total by about 
12 feet. 

The knees are the upright stops against which the log rolls when put on 
the carriage and against which it is held during the cutting operation. Each 
individual knee may be moved several inches either way out of line to take 
care of taper or any irregularities in the surface of the log and all may be 
advanced or moved back simultaneously by means of the set works so that 
the log remains parallel to its original position. 

The knees are from 12 to 24 inches high, the prevailing height being 16 
to 18 inches. Where steam niggers are used in turning the logs, a hook is 
often placed on the top of each knee to prevent accidentally getting the log 
behind the knees, and the tops of the knees are beveled (sometimes rollers 
are inserted in the top) to avoid getting the logs hung up. Low knees, 12 
inches high, are coming into general use because they reduce the leverage 
and thus the shock when large logs strike the top of the knees in rolling 
upon the carriage. They also increase the capacity of the blocks because 
large logs can overhang the short knees. 

Most knees are equipped with two or three kinds of dogs for holding the 
log, cant, or board firmly against them to insure perfect lumber. The main 
or "hook dog" is used for holding the log and cants from above when a 
curved face is presented to the knee. This is usually supplemented by a 
smaller dog operating from below. Some knees are equipped with multiple- 
tooth "board dogs" which project from the face of the knee and are used in 
making the final cut when only slight projection is possible. This can be 
accomplished, however, by careful manipulation of the two dogs mentioned 
above. 

The set works is the part of carriage equipment through which the set- 
terman mechanically advances the knees an amount equal to the thickness 

32 



of the cant to be cut, or moves them back to make room for turning a log or 
receiving a new one. There are many types and makes of set works, but 
most of those used on the Pacific Coast are of % or 1-inch manila rope 
drive, although electric motors are now being very successfully used for 
this work. 

To advance the log for making 2 inch stock, the setterman moves the 
indicator handle to 2 inches on the dial and brings the automatic trip lever 
up against the indicator. At the instant he desires to advance the knees, 
he pulls the set lever which puts the setting friction clutch in action until 
the automatic trip lever releases and stops it when the knees are advanced 
two full inches. These setworks are made to set accurately and automat- 
ically by 16 " increments. 

CO.ST OF CARRIAGE PARTS (1»1«) 

Weight, Cost dolivereU, 

Part lli.s. $ 

72 inch blocks each 2,500 250.00 

Board dogs : . . 150 45.00 

Hook dogs 125 30.00 

Trucks — each block 1,500 100.00 

Offsets— each truck 60() 65.00 

Setworks 6.000 900.00 

Each trailer 5.250 550.00 

Carriage track rail (per ft.) 13 0.60 

Buffers — each 1,400 120.00 

Motor driven setworks are in use at some electric plants. Power records, 
of a 4 block 72 inch carriage are given below. 

Average input throughout day 2.8 Kw. 

Maximum instantaneous input 14.4 Kw. 

Running light 2.4 Kw. 

Average input during operation of setworks 6 Kw. 

The duration of load is from % to 3 seconds at intervals of from 15 to 
20 seconds. 

A 7.5 horsepower set works motor weighs 300 pounds and costs, delivered, 
$115; a 10 horsepower motor weighs 380 pounds and costs |142; and a 15 
horsepower motor weighs 550 pounds and costs $190, (1916). 

CARRIAGE ENGINES 

In Douglas fir mills the carriage is usually driven by means of vertical 
twin cylinder steam engines Figs. 4 and 5 instead of the shot gun 
(direct piston) feed so common in the pine mills. By moving the control 
lover forward or backward a given amount, the sawyer admits steam to the 
cylinders at a rate to give the desired speed of travel (forward "feed" and 
backward "gig"). 

The size and cost of carriage engines depends upon the size of carriage 
and logs to be handled. Most operators prefer a large and powerful engine 
for such work, since it insures rapid work and maximum output. 

SIZES AND COSTS OF ENGINES OF TYI'ICAI. SIZES 

Size of rylindci s, Weigli*^. Cost delivered, 

in. lbs $ 

11 X 11 5.500 700.00 

12 X 16 6.000 800.00 

13 X 18 8,000 050.00 

14 X 18 8.50(1 1,025.00 

16 X 20 1 I.IHKI 1.500.00 

These costs include sheaves, boxes, and fittings but no cable. The cost 
of the cable is from 20 to 25 cents per linear foot. The amount necessary is 
twice the length of the carriage track, plus from 30 to 40 feet for winding 
around the sheave. 

33 



HEADSAWS 

The headsaw is so named beause it is the chief factoi in reaucing the 
log to lumber and the first saw with which the log comes in contact in the 
mill. It removes the rounded surfaces from the log and reduces it to flat 
pieces of desired thickness. These pieces are later reduced to proper board 
widths and lengths by the machines used for edging and trimming respec- 
tively. 




Fig. 12. Left hand single-cutting band headsaw, 10 ft. wheels, 

TYPES 

There are two types of headsaws in general use in the Douglas fir region, 
the band and the circular. 

The band saws are of single and double cutting types. The single cutting 
type saws only as the log carriage moves forward, while the double cutting 

34 



type saws during both motions of the carriage. The double cutting type can 
produce approximately from 20 to 25 per cent more lumber in a given period, 
but it has not come into general use in this region for several reasons. The- 
oretically, there is no mechanical reason why the double cutting saw should 
not operate as efficiently as the single cutting type. There has been some 
difficulty, however, in producing uniformly good lumber on headsaws of this 
kind. The length of the logs in the fir region makes it more difficult to cut 
lumber accurately than where shorter logs are used, as in the pine regions. 
From the standpoint of quality of lumber obtained the principal objections to 
the double cutting headsaw is that the sawyer does not get an opportunity 
to examine the face of the board before each cut. Where single cutting 
saws are used this is done as the log passes the sawyer in returning for the 
next cut. 

A band headsaw consists of a heavy base and frame (Figs. 4, 5 and 12) 
supporting two pulley-like wheels over which the vertical saw runs belt fash- 
ion. The upper wheel is of lighter design than the lower, which is made 
heavy to steady the mill and give it a fly-wheel effect, keeping the load more 
uniform. The lower wheel is also the "driver," thus drawing the saw down 
into the cut. The saw is kept taut and in a straight vertical line by special 
counterweighted straining devices, on knife-edge supports which also cut 
down vibration. The journals of the upper axle are movable to permit loos- 
ening and removing the saw, as well as to accommodate varying length of 
saws. In addition to the straining device for aligning the saw, guides are 
used above and below the cutting zone. The lower guide is stationary, while 
the upper one is movable to accommodate logs of different diameter. 

There are also two types of circular headsaws — single and double. The 
single is used mostly by mills operating in small timber. The double is the 
standard type for all other mills in the region. The double type is composed 
of two saws, one placed above the other and in the same vertical plane (Fig. 
13), thus making possible the cutting of logs approximately twice as large 
as those which can be cut on a single saw. The simplicity of design and 
operation of circular headsaws makes them very popular among small oper- 
ators who cannot use or afford elaborate cutting equipment. 

ADVANTAGES OF BAND HEADSAWS 

1. The waste in saw kerf is only i'u" to %" instead of J2", or about half 
as much with a band as with a circular headsaw. From actual tests this 
waste has been found to amount to from 5 to 16 per cent, with an average 
of approximately 10 per cent of the total log scale cut. Assuming that logs 
are worth $9.00 per thousand, this loss amounts to |90.00 per day in actual 
cash in a mill cutting 100,000 feet per day. There is an additional loss in 
producing capacity of the mill through extra time required to handle the ad- 
ditional logs necessary to obtain the same quantity of lumber a band saw 
will produce in a given period, but lack of data prevents a calculation of its 
amount. 

2. The band saw requires less installed power than the circular. 

3. The annual cost for saws is less, because of the enormous number of 
teeth required for circular saws operating in Douglas fir. 

4. Larger logs can be sawn without special equipment. 

5. Wider boards can be cut. 

6. Band cut boards wider than 27 inches are smooth, while such boards 
from circular saws are frequently ribbed where the two saws overlap. Some- 
times the alignment is off as much as % inch. It is almost impossible to 
keep both saws in proper tension to insure cutting in exactly the same plane. 

7. Band saws are said to be operated successfully at higher speed than 
circulars, which, it is claimed, gives them greater cutting capacity. This 
opinion has been disputed, however. 

35 



ADVANTAGES OF CIRCULAR HEADSAWS 

1. The initial cost is much less foi' circular than for band saws. This 
is a very important factor in the construction of small mills. 

2. Only about one-half as much need be paid out in wages for filing and 
tensioning. 

3. The cost of file-room equipment is almost negligible. 

4. The adjustment and operation require much less skill to produce uni- 
formly good lumber, and there is less damage to the saws where logsi accu- 
mulate gravel and rocks in driving. 

5. Circular headsaws are portable and adapted to operating in small iso- 
lated tracts of timber. They are easily and quickly set up. 

SIZE, CAPACITY AND COST 

Circular headsaws vary in the Douglas fir region from 56 inches to 60 
inches in diameter. The upper saw of the double circular is sometimes 
smaller than the lower saw, but not usually because the large fir timber re- 
quires the maximum width of cut. It is also advantageous to have these 
saws interchangeable. 

The maxim.um width of boards and the diameter of logs which can be 
cut on circular headsaws of different types is as follows: 



CUT OF CIRCULAR HEADSAWS 

Size of Width of Diameter of 

saw, widest board, largest log, 

in. Type in. in. 

56 Single 25 31 

56 Double 49 61 

60 Sing-le 27 33 

60 Double 53 66 




Fig. 13. Double circular headsaw — 60-inch saws. 

36 



Circular headsaws have a producing capacity of from 10,000 to 250,000 
feet per ten hour day, depending principally upon the auxiliary sawing equip- 
ment, the size of the logs, the speed of the feed, and the available power. 
The lower extreme is that of the small portable mill with slow saw speed, a 
hand edger, and a hand trimmer, cutting short logs, and operated with very 
little power. The higher extreme is the circular headsaw used to slab or 
"break down" logs for a double cutting pony band resaw, or supplemented 
with roller and gang resaws. 

The size of the band headsaws cutting fir varies from 9 feet to 11 feet, 
the most popular size being 10 feet, which is the diameter of the wheel upon 
which the belt-like saw runs. Where fast feeds are used the mills are 11 
foot mills in order that heavy saws may be employed. 

Single cutting band headsaws have a capacity of from 75,000 to 350.000 
board feet per ten hour day, depending upon the speed of feed, the auxiliary 
equipment, size of logs, and available power. The reason why the lower 
figure is so much higher than the minimum given for circular mills is be- 
cause the high cost of band mills and their operation necessitates the in- 
stallation of proper auxiliary equipment to enable a good sized production 
and insure economic operation. Furthermore, band mills ordinarily are not 
portable', and therefore, are not adapted to operating in isolated patches ol 
timber in a small way. The lower limit represents the type of band mill 
which has no resaw, and where all material, even one inch boards, are cut 
on the headsaw at ordinary rates of feed. The upper limit is the capacity 
of band saws supplemented with the auxiliary equipment mentioned under 
circular saws. 

A 9 foot band headsaw machine weighs from 38,000 to 42,000 pounds and 
costs from $2,800 to $3,200 (1916) ; and a 10 foot band machine weighs from 
54,000 to 58,000 pounds and costs from $3,800 to $4,200 (1916). 

The above figures include steam or friction operated guides, straining de- 
vices, and belt tighteners. Ten per cent should be added to the cost and 
from 1,200 to 1,600 pounds to the weight to cover the belt ordinarily used 
to drive these machines. The cost of installing band headsaws is from $100 
to $150. 

SPEED OF FEED 

The speed of feed employed in sawing Douglas fir logs of the same size 
is not uniform, even among plants using the same equipment, and varies 
from less than ^" to 1/6" per tooth. The average feed for the general run 
of log is probably close to 200 linear feet per minute for the region as a 
whole, while the maximum average feed known to the author is close to 
500 feet per minute, and the maximum on small logs is 650 feet per minute. 
For the average run of fir logs a feed of 500 linear feet per minute will yield 
approximately 10 board feet of lumber per second, including time lost in 
changing and turning logs, changing saws, and normal delays. 

STRAIN FOR BAND SAWS 

In order to keep the cutting edge of the saw running true and to stiffen 
the saw so that it will not be pushed off the wheels upon entering the cut, 
special straining devices are employed. Insufficient strain destroys the pur- 
pose of such devices, while too much strain overloads the saw and may 
cause cracks or even breaks. The following figures applied by saw manu- 
facturers show the recommended strain for Douglas fir band headsaws of 
various widths and gauges: 



1 A small portable band mill has recently been placed on the market and 
said to cost only $3,000 complete with carriage, engines, boiler, etc. 

37 



STRAIN RECOMMENDED FOR BAND HEADSAWS 



idth of saw, 


Gauge 


Strain, 


Width of saw. 


Gauge 


Strain, 


in. 


of saw 


lbs. 


In. 


of saw 


lbs. 


12 


13 


12,300 


14 


12 


16,700 


13 


13 


13,300 


15 


12 


17,700 


14 


13 


14,400 


16 


12 


18,700 


15 


13 


15,400 


15 


11 


21,500 


13 


12 


15.600 


16 


11 


22,500 



The following formula developed by Mr. C. G. Blagen, of Hoquiam, Wash- 
ington, isi said to give excellent results, and is applicable to saws which have 
been cut down beyond the widths shown above: "Take the thickness or 
gauge of the saw in thousanths of an inch, disregarding the decimal \ Mul- 
tiply this by the width of the blade% and then multiply this product by a 
constant of 8 for the minimum strain or by a constant of 10 for the maximum 
strain^" 

SPACING OF SAW TEETH 

Circular headsaws used in cutting Douglas fir have an average tooth 
space (distance between the teeth points) of about 4^/^ inches. A few oper- 
ators use a space of 4% inches. 

For band headsaws a tooth space of 2^/^ inches is most common, although 
many mills are using a 3-inch space for heavy work. 

The tooth spacing is regulated mainly by the speed of the saw, the speed 
of feed, and the nature of the wood being cut. 

SPEED OF SAWS 

The speed at which band and circular saws are operated has a bearing 
upon the cutting capacity of the machine, and is an important feature of saw- 
mill management. Operators do not agree on the proper speeds for saws 
cutting in the same wood, and for this reason it is rather difficult to give 
definite values. The figures given below for band saws and circular saws 
represent averages rather than speeds which are actually known to be the 
best for Douglas fir. 

Saw makers and the best sawyers operating in fir agree that 9,000 feet 
per minute at the rim is probably the best speed for true, smooth cutting 
with circular saws. Headsaws operated at higher speeds are sensitive and 
inclined to wabble in cutting. For this reason they are also more likely to 
heat. On the other hand, slower speeds reduce the rate of feed possible and 
are otherwise objectionable. 

A speed of 9,000 feet per minute is equivalent to about 620, 590, and 570 
revolutions per minute for 56-inch, 58-inch, and 60-inch saws, respectively. 

The speed of band saws in the Douglas fir region varies from 9,000 to 
11,000 feet per minute, but most of them are operated at the average speed 
of 10,000 feet per minute. The speed of 10,000 feet per minute is equivalent 
to 355 revolutions per minute for 9 foot headsaws, 320 for 10 foot, and 290 
for 11 foot. 

SIZE AND COST OF SAWS (1916) 

Band mill manufacturers recommend the use of saws only one foot longer 
than the shortest saw the mill will take, since this reduces the distance 
between the saw wheels and makes it easier to keep the saw running true. 
Below is given the size and cost of band saws. 

SIZE AND rO.ST OF B.\NDSAWS (1910) 



Size of 
mill. 




'^ A W 






Single out 
per foot, 


>^i 

Double cut 
per foot. 


W 


eight per 
foot. 


Length. 


o/\ 1* 


Width, 


Kerf. 




ft. 


ft. 


Gauge 


in. 


in. 


$ 


$ 




lbs. 


9 


50-54 


13 


14 


•ffe 


3.15 


3.50 




4.50 


10 


57-60 


13 


15 


A 


3.85 


3.85 




4.82 


11 


63-67 


12 


16 


'J -J 


4.50 


5.00 




5.92 



> Multiply the tliickuess of the saw in thousandths of an inch by 1,000. 
- In inches. 
' In pounds. 

38 



The present tendency among fir operators is to use thinner and narrower 
saws than was the custom several years ago. Twelve gauge saws were 
formerly in extensive use on ten foot mills, but now nearly all are thirteen 
gauge. This is probably because thinner saws are more flexible, and hence 
less likely to crack. They also require less kerf to keep from binding. 
Saws 17 inches, 18 inches, and even 19 inches wide were used quite gener- 
ally several years ago because the operators thought they would have a 
longer life in proportion to their cost than the narrower saws. It is said, 
however, that before the wide saws were worn down sufficiently to justify 
their being discarded, they became crystallized and brittle by constant tem- 
perature changes and tensioning. As a result, the sizes shown are now al- 
most universal. 

The size, cost, and weight of inserted-tooth circular headsaws are as fol- 
lows: 

SIZE AND COST OF INSERTED-TOOTH CIRCULAR HEADSAAVS (191C) 

Cost F.O.B. 

i;>iameter. No. of Kerf, Portland or Seattle, AV^eight, 

in. Gauge Teeth in. $ His. 

56 5 40 • },?. 09.10 200 

58 5 42 h^ 110.00 220 

60 5 44 ii 121.00 250 

Additional saw teeth, or bits as they are called, cost 2^/^ cents each, and 
the holders from 35 to 40 cents each. 

POWER FOR HEADSAWS 

The amount of power required for headsaws of any given size or kind 
varies with the speed of the saw, the size of timber cut, and the rate of feed 
used. In small circular mills where the cut is from 10,000 to 40,000 feet per 
day, the power requirement is low because the feed is slow. In circular and 
band mills cutting from 100,000 to 350,000 feet per day, the power require- 
ment is greater because the feed is crowded to the maximum. There should 
be sufficient reserve power to retain the proper saw speedy at all times. Too 
many mills are handicapped by insufficient power for the headsaw, and as 
a result, are operating at only from 50 to 60 per cent of their potential 
capacity. This applies particularly to steam, shaft-driven mills, for electric 
mills have a certain amount of reserve power in the overload which the 
motors will stand for short periods. 

While in the cut, circular headsaws require much more power than band 
saws because the saw kerf is twice as wide and the saw is working con- 
stantly against the feed. This is especially true in wide cuts, and offsets 
to a certain extent the extra power required to turn the heavy band saw 
machinery. Running light, the circular headsaw requires about one third of 
the power demanded by a band saw. 

There is very little difference in the power requirement of 9-foot and 10- 
foot band headsaws, and' the data given below can be construed as generally 
applicable to either of these sizes. Motors now in use on these headsaws 
range from 200 to 300 horsepower. Under normal conditions a 250 horse- 
power constant speed motor is probably ample for either a 9-foot or 10- 
foot band headsaw cutting Douglas fir, but when fast feeds are to be used 
400 or 500 h. p. motors are necessary. 

The following data are representative of the power required for band 
headsaws operating in Douglas fir: 

Duration of starting period 1 minute 35 seconds 

Starting demand (instantaneous) 560 Kw. 750 h. p. 

Sustained input for 55 seconds during starting 240 Kw. 322 h. p. 

Input running light 56 Kw. 75 h. p. 

Average input throughout day 116.5 Kw. 156 h. p. 

Average input during cut 230 Kw. 308 h. p. 

Rate of feed, average 180 f. p. m. 

39 



Average Kw. hrs. per thousand feet 8.8 Kw. hrs. 

Average time in cut ' 8.9 sees. 

Average time to gig 5.5 sees. 

Delay between logs averaged per cut 4.4 sees. 

Delay between logs averaged per cut 4.4 sees. 

S xty inch saws cutting Jjl inch kerf under the same working conditions 
as the band saw just shown will require approximately the following power: 

Input running light 16 Kw. 21.4 h. p. 

Maximum input — instantaneous 520 Kw. 697 h. p. 

Maximum sustained input 420 Kw. 562 h. p. 

Average input throughout day 138 Kw. 185 h. p. 

Average input sustained during cut 275 Kw. 369 h. p. 

The size and cost of headsaw motors is as follows: Motors are o£ the 
slip ring type, complete with base, pulley, controller, and starting resistance. 

SIZE AlVD COST OF HEADSAW MOTORS 

Horsepower, • Speed, Weight, Cost delivered, 

li. p. R. p. m. lbs. $ 

150 600 6,600 1,615.00 

200 600 ■• 8,100 1,940.00 

250 600 8,200 2,800.00 

300 600 14,200 3,187.00 

400 450 15,000 4,140.00 

500 450 20,500 4,910.00 

OPERATIVES AND DUTIES 

In addition to the men on the log carriage, who are Indirectly connected 
with the headsaw operation, there are the sawyer and the off-bearer (some- 
times called a tail sawyer) directly responsible for the headsaw operation. 

The sawyer is the backbone of the sawmill personnel, since upon him de- 
pends both the quantity and quality of the output from each log. Given the 
best equipment to work with, the efficiency of the sawing operation and the 
output of the mill are entirely in his hands. 

The sawyer's duties are manifold. Following is an account of his activi- 
ties in cutting a representative log: As the empty carriage, the movement 
of which the sawyer controls, is returning to position in front of the log 
deck, the sawyer steps on a foot lever which releases the log from storage 
on the deck and allows it to roll onto the carriage. The operation is timed 
so that the log lands upon the carriage at the same instant that the latter 
comes to a full stop — thus no time is lost. The log is then quickly turned 
by means of a steam nigger or Simonson turner to a position which will 
group the defects in as few boards as possible, jammed back against the 
knees, and gripped by the dogs. The knees are then so placed that the slab 
removed on the first cut will not be too thick and thus contain an unneces- 
sary amount of waste, nor too thin to yield a surface of board size on the 
log after its removal. All this is accomplished in less time than it takes to 
tell it, for the entire operation requires but a few seconds. The carriage is 
then started forward by the sawyer, and the first cut is made. It is the 
sawyer's duty to feed the log against the saw at its maximum cutting ca- 
pacity in order to insure maximum output. As the carriage is returned or 
"gigged" for the second cut, the head sawyer studies the exposed face of 
the cut to ascertain what quality of lumber is to be obtained in the next 
"cant," for he must signal the setterman the thickness he desires. The out- 
side portion of the log yields the clear or upper grade of lumber, and as 
soon as the low grades appear on the surface of the cut, the sawyer turns 
this flat face of the log down upon the carriage and starts cutting on another 
quarter of the log. This operation is usually repeated until the clear lumber 
has been removed from the four sides of the log. The piece remaining on 
the carriage is a big square timber containing the lower grades. The reduc- 
tion of this last piece to various board sizes is governed entirely by orders 
or stock requirements for various thicknesses. 

40 



Since most plants are now equipped with resaws (Figs. 14 and 15), the 
stock is usually cut double thickness on the headsaw in ordei' to save time, 
and is divided into proper board thicknesses on a resaw. Cants are also cut 
four inches or six inches thick, representing the width of certain planing 
mill stock. These are reduced to boards one inch thick and four or si'; 
inches wide on gang resaws (Fig. 15). This practice also saves much time 
and materially increases the capacity of the head saw. Some mills are 
equipped with pony resaws which are in reality headsaws used for sawing 
cants instead of logs. Where a mill is thus equipped, the sawyer removes 
only the slabs and some of the clear from the log on the headsaw, and sends 
the remaining portion to the pony resaw to be cut up in the same manner as 
described for the headsaw. 




Fig. 14. Twin band vertical resaw, 60-inch wheels. 



As previously stated, the sawyer mifst make known to the setter the 
thickness he wishes to cut each cant. To do this by voice is impossible 
because of the noise of the mill machinery and saws. To meet this condi- 
tion, sawyers and setters have developed a sign language similar to that 
used by the deaf and dumb (Fig. 16).* 



* Prom the West Coast Lumberman. 

41 




Fig. 13. Large gang saw for cants up to 14 x 18 inches. 

42 



The lower illustrations showing the fractions are given as examples of 
how the signs are combined. In some cases it is not possible to give these 
signs in one movement, wherefore there are combinations. For instance, 3 '4 
cannot be given at one time as the three first fingers represent three, and 
the little finger a quarter, so given at the same time would be four; it is 
given, therefore, by first giving the sign of three, then closing the three 
fingers and raising the little finger for a quarter. Three quarters following 
any unit is given by first giving the sign of three, then following with little 
finger. 




I Ihc« 




2 iNCHtS 





3 iMCnc* 



4- Incuts 




S iMCHtS 





fi iNCMi^ 



7 iNCnCS 




8 iHcnC/ 




9 Incuts 




to iHCHCl 






19 Inchcj 




14 Imchcs 



II incmcj 



12. IncHCS 




15 INCHC5 




'^ Inchcs 




16 InCMCS 




Z'A Ihchcj 




IT iNCMes IS In«h(« 




V/l Incnes 



Fig. 16. Sawyers' sign language. 
43 




2'/t. lNcnc« 




44 



REAR ELEVA1 

Fig. 6. Rear elevation of a s 




KTION 

ind Douglas Fir sawmill. 




nd Douglas Fir sawmill. 



45 



The same thing pertains to a half, the thumb representing the half. For 
example, 4^^ cannot be given with one motion, as a combination of the four 
lingers and thumb makes Ave. It is given, therefore, by first raising the 
lour fingers with the thumb closed, then closing the four fingers and raising 
thumb. 

In giving the sign Inr an eighth, the sign for eight, index finger down is 
used. Take 7% as an example; hand closed with thumb up for 7, followed 
by three fingers up, then index finger down for %. 

Instructions to turn the log are given by raising open hand with palm 
out, then dropping same to side. 

The order to set log for cutting off slab is shown by raising closed fist 
and holding same up until the log has been set at proper place, then drop- 
ping fist to side. 

In cutting lumber of special thickness, there is an understanding between 
the sawyer and setter. Each mill has some special signs along these lines, 
which are local, and which are not of general use. 

CANT LOWERING DEVICES 

As the heavy fir cants fall from the log upon the main rolls, they are fre- 
quently injured by the force of the impact unless the rolls are as wide as 
they are or wider. Ordinarily, the top edge, which is the one that develops 
the greater momentum, overhangs the rolls, and the tendency is for the im- 
pact to produce a crack in the cant along the line of overhang. 

Devices have recently come on the market (Fig. 17) to lower the cants 
with a pneumatic or steam cylinder in such a way that the shock is ab- 
sorbed. This not only prevents the cracks mentioned above, but it reduces 
the wear and tear on the rolls and roll bearings and also saves an enormous 
amount of strain on the entire front end of the plant. The number of low- 
ering arms in the series depends on the length of the logs cut. They are 
usually spaced from 8 to 10 feet apart. These devices cost about the same 
as the log stops used on the deck. 





V^ 



\M^ 



Fig. 17. Cant lowering device. 



Fig. 18. Tensioning circular saws, 
area hammered in "opening up" a 
circular saw. Arrows indicate flow 
of metal. 



46 



EDGERS 

TYPES 

Sawmill edgers have three functions, all of which have an important bear- 
ing on the quantity, quality, and value of the final lumber products. 

The primary function is to remove? the wane or rounded edges from the 
cants or flitches coming from the headsaw. The next is to divide the cants 
into strips of desired board widths, and the third is to separate the clear or 
valuable portions of the cants from the knotty or low grade parts. All of 
these objects are accomplished in one operation, and it is this variety of 
purposes which greatly complicates the process of edging. The operation is 
separated into two distinct parts: First, placing the cant in position prop- 
erly to be fed into the machine and arranging the saws for their work; sec- 
ond, feeding the stock thi'ough the machine. The first requires mental and 
the second mechanical efficiency. 

The edgers are of single and double types. The double edgers have split 
feed rolls which permit feeding two "cants" of the same or different thick- 
ness into the machine at one time. Some of these double edgers have two 
edging crews and are operated as two machines. By combining the two 
machines, added width is obtained for emergency use and the cost of equip- 
ment and installation is materially reduced. 

Edgers are also classified as to right or left hand, according to the side 
of the machine upon which the drive is connected. 

The cants are fed through the machine (Fig. 19) horizontally over spiked 
or groove feed rolls 8 to 10 inches in diameter against a series of vertical 
saws on a common arbor. From above, heavy press rolls operated by double 
acting steam cylinders force the cant down upon the feed rolls, insuring per- 
fect contact and preventing any "kick back" from the thrust of the saws. 
Similar rolls in the rear remove the material from the machine. The saws 
on Pacific Coast edgers are moved by means of short self-locking hand levers 
directly connected to forked saw guides, each having contact with both sides 
of one saw. The saw can be slid in either direction by simply moving the 
lever handle. 




Fig. 19. 7-saw edger with mechanical saw shifting device. 

47 



SIZE AND CAPACITY 

The common size of edgers is 10 x 72 inches, although in the last two 
years several 12 inch and 14 inch edgers, designed for taking extra thick 
cants, have two advantages. The greater advantage is the higher rate of 
speed with which all thicknesses of stpck can be fed through such machines. 
The other is that thick cants for making V. G. stepping and similar stock 
do not need to be rehandled on the log carriage to get the proper grain, as 
is frequently necessary in mills equipped with edgers too small to take 
cants the thickness of stepping boards. 

The size indicates the greatest width of material which can be fed to the 
machine; about 3 inches for every saw must be subtracted from this to get 
the widest possible material which can be put out by it, this allowance 
being for the overall width of the saw collars when they are placed at the 
sides. 

The 10-hour capacity of present 10 inch edgers operated with single ci-ews 
varies from 75,000 to 150,000 feet, depending upon the thickness and width 
of cants, while the 12 inch and 14 inch edgers ordinarily cut up to 175,000 
feet with single crews, and from 250,000 to 300,000 feet are being put 
through the machines. 

COST 

Below is given the cost and weight of edgers.' 



Size of machine, 


AVeight, 


Cost delivei 


in. 


lbs. 


$ 


10x60 


11,700 


1,350.00 


10 X 72 


13,000 


1,500.00 


12 X 72 


15,000 


1,750.00 



^ Data refers to edgers proper. Add 20 per cent to above costs and 15 per 
cent to above weights to cover pulleys, belts, etc., for feed. These costs do 
not include rolls and chains in front of or behind the edger, motor costs, or 
pulleys and belts for shaft driven edgers. 

COST AND WEIGHT OF EDGERS (191C) 

Size of machine. Weight, Cost delivered 
in. lbs. $ 

14x72 18,000 2,075.00 

10x84 14,000 1,750.00 

12x84 16,000 1,850.00 

SPEED OF FEED 

The speeds of feed used on the edgers are not at all uniform even for 
edgers of the same size operating on the same thickness of stock. This is 
due to differences in the operating conditions (i. e. the demand for fast speed 
to take care of the product) and to a large extent to insufficient power to 
maintain an efficient feed on thick stock (6 to 14 inches) when several saws 
are in the cut. The maximum feed used is 300 feet per minute. At one plant 
this speed is maintained for all thicknesses of stock up to 14 inches, even 
with five or six saws in the cut. This requires an enormous amount of 
power, but it also increases the capacity of a large edger from the usual 
production of from 150,000 feet per ten hour day up to more than 300,000 
feet for the same period. 

The usual practice is to have two or three speeds of feed, so that when 
thick stock is being cut or when a large number of the edger saws are work- 
ing the feed can be reduced and the machine operated with less power. The 
variable speed of feed is obtained either through special drives on pulleys of 
different sizes, by a disc friction drive, or by a variable speed motor. 

The most efficient feed is that which will insure stock being put through 
the edger faster than it can be made on the headsaw and delivered to the 
machine. 

EDGER SAWS 

All edger saws now in common use are of the inserted tooth type, 
that is, the teeth can be replaced when they become badly worn or 
broken. The introduction of this type has enormously reduced both the 
time required in caring tor the saws and their cost per thousand feet of lum- 
ber produced. 

48 



The following table gives number of teeth, size, gauge, kerf, weight, and 
cost of typical edger saws for machines of different sizes. 

COST OF KDGER SAWS (1916) 

Approximate cost 
F.O. B. Coast 
Size of edger, Number of Kerf, Gauge Diameter, Weight, terminals, 

in. teetli 5', in. in. lbs. $ 

8 18 ll 7 26 20 25.00 

8 20 12 6 28 22 28.00 

10 22 12 6 30 26 32.00 

10 24 12 6 32 35 35.00 

12 26 13 5 34 42 39.00 

12 28 13 5 36 48 42.00 

14 30 13 5 38 59 46.00 

Single edgers 72 inches wide usually have from five to seven saws. Double 
edgers are equipped with from 8 to 10 saws. From two to five extra saws 
are required to permit an interchange for filing and tensioning, and to avoid 
crippling the plant in case of breakage. 

The average life of edger saws is about two years, and of the teeth or 
bits about 2 or 3 weeks. 

Edger saw teeth cost 2^^ cents each. 

POWER FOR EDGERS 

The power demanded for edgers depends upon the rate of feed, thickness 
of cant and number of saws in the cut, and, to a very small extent, on the 
size of the machine. 

Typical daily conditions in Douglas fir mills are as follows: 
Starting demand (instantaneous— duration of starting 

10-15 sec.) 40.0 Kw. 

Running light input 21.0 Kw. 

Average input throughout day 27.6 Kw. 

Average Kw. Hr. per 1,000 ft. B. M 4.45 Kw. hr. 

The average input in the cut varies so much that it is impossible to cal- 
culate it with any degree of accuracy. 

Maximum input at beginning of cut 461 Kw. 

Maximum input maintained during cut 290 Kw. 

Typical 15 minute periods are as follows: 

Number of cants in 15 minutes 37 

Maximum input in cut to start 350 Kw. 

Minimum input in cut to start Ill Kw. 

Idle time 10 min. 

Working time 5 min. 

The large amount of idle time is responsible for the low average power 
demand. 

Most edgers, especially those in shaft mills, are equipped with insuffi- 
cient power to obtain maximum efficiency. This is not so likely to be the 
case where electric motors are employed. Electric driven edgers have more 
power because electrical engineers are very careful to supply motors of 
ample size, because the power cannot be stolen by other machines, and be- 
cause motors will stand enormous overloads for short periods without 
stalling. 

Edger motors are usually connected directly to the edger arbor, but this 
is not always possible because in some instances, those of the desired 
speed cannot be obtained. The size and cost of edger motors are as follows: 

SIZE AlVD COST OF EDGER MOTORS (1916) 

Speed of Approximate 

Size of edger, Power, Saws, Weight, Cost delivered, 

in. li. p. R. p. m. lbs. $ 

8 X 60 150 1.200 3,700 1,200 

10 X 72 200-250 1,200 4,700 1,300 

12 X 72 250-300 1,200 5,600 1,600 

14 X 72 300-400 900 8,200 2,025 

900-950 10,000 2,500 

Prices given above are for direct connected motor complete with compen- 
sators; no couplings are included. 

49 



The following are prices on belted motors of similar ratings complete 
with base, pulleys, and starting compensators. 

COST OF BELTED MOTORS (1916) 

Power, Speed, Weight, Cost delivered, 

h. p. R. p. ni. lbs. lbs. 

150 900 4,640 1,200 

200 600 7,200 1,615 

250 600 12,600 2,760 

300 450 14,500 3,440 

400 450 ■ 15,000 4,240 

Edger saws, like other circular saws, do better work when not speeded up 
too fast. High speed tends to make the saws wabble. Where motors of 
desired speed cannot be obtained for direct connection, the saw speed should 
not be changed, but provision should be made to obtain the desired speed 
by pulleys or gears, preferably by the latter. 

The edger feed rolls are usually driven by a pulley on the machine 
arbor, recently they are being run by variable speed reversing back geared 
motors with speeds of 600, 900, 1,200, and 1,800 R. p. m. The feed drive is 
independent of the machine drive and requires a 7.5 h. p. motor, depend- 
ing upon the size of the machine. These motors cost $450 and $475, respec- 
tively (1916). 

MECHANICAL LINER 

A device has recently come on the market for mechanically lining up 
cants to be edged. It usually does away with the services of a liner-man and 
in addition greatly assists the edgerman in quickly getting the cants into 
position. The equipment consists of a series of chain transfer skids placed 
between the rolls in front of the edger and raised and lowered independently 
by steam or air cylinders. One set of the skid chains moves in one direc- 
tion and the other in the reverse direction. 

By this means it is possible to align the cant by simply raising whichever 
of the skids under one end is traveling in the right direction, carrying the 
end of the cant to the desired spot, and then lowering the skid, the other 
end being allowed to rest on the rolls the meanwhile. 

These liners with four skids and drive cost about $900 and weigh about 
13,000 pounds. Five skid liners cost about $1,100 and weigh 16,000 pounds. 
A ten horse power motor is required for this device. 

LOCATION OF EDGER IN MILL 

The location of the edger is an important element of sawmill design, since 
it affects the size of the mill frame as well as the efficiency of the plant. 

The edger is placed in a line parallel to the line of travel on the rolls 
and usually at a distance from the headsaw slightly greater than the length 
of the longest logs to be cut in considerable quantities. Provision may be 
made for handling unusually long pieces by cutting them in two with a 
jump saw placed in the rolls leading from the headsaw. Such practice re- 
tards the headsaw and is usually followed only in getting out special orders. 
On the other hand, too great a distance between these machines unneces- 
sarily increases the length of the mill and correspondingly the cost of the 
mill building and certain equipment, such as live rolls and shafting. 

The edger is placed far enough away from the main line of rolls to allow 
ample storage of cants, so that temporary delays at the edger will not 
prevent continuous operation of the headsaw, but not so far away as to 
make the mill building unnecessarily wide. 

OPERATIVES AND THEIR DUTIES 

The edging operation in most Douglas fir mills requires the services of 
three men, one highly skilled, and the other two practically unskilled labor- 
ers. The skilled operator, who is called the edgerman, stands directly in 
front of the machine and regulates the width of the pieces by increasing or 

50 



decreasing the horizontal distance between the various vertical saws until 
their cutting lines will divide the cant properly as it passes through the 
machine. With the assistance of one of the unskilled laborers called a liner- 
man, the edgerman must also swing the cants into a position paralleling the 
edger saw lines, so that the boards will run true with the grain of the wood. 
This is to avoid waste and to prevent diagonal grain, which is a defect. 

Since the cants come to the edger in quick succession, the work must 
be accomplished with great briskness. The edgerman's duties require both 
rapid and keen judgment because of the speed at which he works and the 
eflect the edging operation has on the amount and quality of the product 
obtained from the logs. While he is placing the cant in position to be edged, 
he must hastily calculate what saw cuts will yield the most desirable pro- 
duct from the standpoint first, of quality, and second, the demand for various 
sizes. In addition, he must make his outer cuts the full width of the 
merchantable wood, or there will be unnecessary waste. 

The other unskilled laborer connected with edging is called the off bearer. 
His duty is to separate the waste strips from the good strips as they leave 
the machine by pushing the waste strips off the rolls which carry the good 
strips to the lumber trimmer Some mills do away with this off bearer 
by putting the waste strips through the trimmer with the good lumber in- 
stead of sending it to a slasher as is usually the custom. This practice has 
the advantage of allowing the trimmerman to decide whether a piece is 
worth saving. 

Mills cutting over 150,000 feet per day usually have two edging crews. 
They work either on one large double machine or at separate machines. 

SLASHERS 

Slashers (Fig. 20) are used to reduce the waste pieces from the headsaw 
and edger to 4-foot lengths, a size suitable for lath and fuel. 

In Douglas fir mills cutting 130,000 feet or less, it is often more effi- 
cient to accomplish this on the trimmers, so the mills are designed without 
slashers (Fig. 5). In larger mills such practice may overburden the trimmer 
because of the large number of additional (25-30 per cent more) pieces to be 
handled. In addition to disposing of the edger off bearer, such practice 
reduces the cost of the mill about |3,000 (exclusive of the slashers) and 
gives a skilled operator final disposition of each piece. This last feature is 
very important, since the general tendency among off bearers is to waste too 
much material. 

The slasher may be placed on either side of the mill to suit the layout 
for getting at fuel wood and delivering refuse to the burner. Slashers are 
usually made to accommodate pieces about the same length as the trimmer. 

The saws, which are all hung on the same arbor, are spaced 4 feet apart, 
except at some of the export mills where lath AVz feet long is made for the 
off shore trade. A 40 foot slasher is usually constructed with only 9 saws, 
and a 44 foot one with 10 saws, the extreme end saws being omitted. The 
saw collars are large, often 12 inches in diameter, to prevent the saw from 
cracking. 

Spiked chains are ordinarily used on both the transfer table and the feed 
table. Those on the transfer table are 4 feet apart. On the feed table there 
is one chain on either side of each saw, one at the extreme ends, and one 
midway between each saw to prevent pieces from remaining on the table 
after the cut. The feed tables are from 10-12 feet long. The transfer tables 
are of sufficient length to receive material from both the main and edger 
rolls. 

51 



Spring set cross cut saws are used on the slasher. They are usually 
one or two gauges heavier than trimmer saws of the same size and are oper- 
ated at approximately 9,000 feet rim speed per minute. It is the general 
practice to file and hammer one saw a day, so that each saw is filed every 
eight or ten days. The process of filing and setting is the same as for the 
trimmer saws. 

Most mills have a man on the slasher to straighten pieces which get 
askew or untangle material when edging pieces fall across slabs already 
on the table. Many mills operate without such a man, relying on other 
members of the crew to look out for tangles. 




Fig. 20. Cross section of slasher for cutting slabs to 4-foot lengths. 



COST 

Following is given the size, and weight of representative slasher saws. 
The 42 inch saw is most common. 

COST OF SLASHER SAWS (1910) 

_, Cost 

Diameter, Gaii.are Weight, F.O.B. coast, 

in- lbs. $ 

36 8 42 18.00 

38 8 51 19.25 

40 7 65 23.75 

42 7 83 27.25 

62 



The cost (1916) of slashers, exclusive of saws and motors, but including 
feed table and feed works, is approximately $1,000. Slashers weigh from 
7,000 to 10,000 pounds, according to length. 

POWER FOR SLASHERS 

Slasher motors vary in size from 25 to 50 h. p., according to the number 
of saws. A direct conected 900 R. p. m. motor is ordinarily used. This 
motor also drives the feed table by means of a pulley on the saw arbor 

A 25 horse power motor weighs 1,320 pounds and costs $380; one cf 30 
horse power weighs 1,670 pounds and costs $480; and the 50 horse power 
motor weighs 2,300 pounds and costs $550, (1916). Motors are alternatim; 
current squirrel cage- induction machines complete with pulleys, bases, and 
starting compensators. 

TRIMMERS 

TYPES 

The object of the trimming operation is threefold; to square up the ends 
of the prospective boards, making a true right angle with the sides, top, and 
bottom; to reduce the board to desired standard lengths (multiples of two 
feet); to remove defects which impair the grade of the board and to sepa- 
rate high grade portions from low grade portions in the same piece. 

There are two distinct types of trimmers in use in Deuglas fir mills, al 
though one of them is restricted to small mills (under 60,000 feet). The 
small mill variety is the single swing cut-off saw. The saws are usually 
quite large, to trim fair-sized timbers and also to permit rapid cutting. The 
other is the so-called "automatic" trimmer (Fig. 6) consisting of a ser- 
ies of from 18 to 22 independent saws two feet apart and controlled by pneu- 
matic cylinders through a key board of levers from a point above the 
trimmer feed table. 

The boards are fed against the saws by a series of pegged chains, one 
passing to either side of each saw. The pegs are arranged on the chains at 
uniform intervals (from 3 to 4 feet) and in rows paralled to the arbor, so 
that the boards will be presented to the saws at right angles. 

The air compressors used in the supply of air to the cylinders for man- 
ipulating the trimmer saws vary considerably as to design and capacity. 
When air is used at the trimmer alone (and not for cleaning purposes, as 
with air hose lines) the locomotive type compressor is often used. Larger 
compressors are built in horizontal stationary units which occupy consider- 
able floor space and are direct acting steam applications with duplex or 
compound air and steam cylinders. The electric motor driven compressor 
is rare. The size of locomotive compressor commonly employed for large 
trimmers is 11 x 11 x 12 inches. 

It costs about $500 installed (1916), including a 30 x 72 inch receiver 
(storage tank). 

The helper who works constantly in front of the trimmer saw.s is in a 
precarious position, for should he fall upon the feed chains he would be 
carried quickly against the saws. A few of the modern mills have installed 
iron pipe fences or railings across the front of the trimmer to protect the 
workman and to relieve him of the nervous strain caused by his constant 
danger. 

SIZE AND CAPACITY 

The size of a trimmer is gauged by its length or the distance between 
the outer saws. In the fir region trimmers thus vary from 32 to 44 feet; the 
representative size is 40 feet. The width or distance carried varies from 
6 to 10 feet. These give actual working distances of 3 and 7 feet, respec- 
tively, before the saw comes in contact with the board. The greater dis- 

53 



tance is more efficient because it gives the trimmerman a better opportunity 
to view the board and thus greater time to adjust or change his saws after 
the board is on the table. 

Forty foot trimmers equipped with fast feed and pneumatic saw control 
have a capacity up to 175,000 feet per 10 hour day on average material, or 
300,000 feet on thick stock. Where the majority of the pieces are small or 
short, this output cannot be reached. 

COST 

The weight and cost of trimmers vary somewhat with the make, but the 
following are representative figures for the fir region for iO/ioot and 44 foot 
machines. The cost includes cylinders, pulleys, chains, troughs, drive, etc. 

COST AXD ^VEIGHT OF TRIMMER.S (1916) 

Number Weight, Cost delivered. 



Size 


of saws 


lbs. 


$ 


40-foot 


21 


25,000 


2.000.00 


44-foot 


23 


27.500 


2,200.00 



The cost of installation is about $200. 

SPEED OF FEED 

The rate at which the feed chains are operated varies at different plants 
from 40 feet to 100 feet per minute, most often the latter Some machines 
are equipped with a variable friction drive, which is desirable where con- 
siderable very thick stock, from 8 to 12 inches, is sent over the trimmer 
table, although two speeds would probably work satisfactorily and relieve 
the trimmerman of constantly regulating the rate of feed. 

The frequency with which the rows of pegs advance the boards to the 
saws obviously depends upon both the distance between them and the rate 
of feed. "With 4 feet as the representative distance between pegs, their 
frequency is 10 boards per minute on a 40 foot feed and 25 per minute on 
a 100 foot feed. Though the frequency of 25 per minute, or approximately 
zy2 seconds apart, is faster than the trimmerman can work to advantage, 
it permits the boards to follow one another rapidly onto the feed table. 

SPEED OF SAWS 
Trimmer saws are operated at a rim speed of from 8,000 to 11,000 feet per 
minute, the speed ordinarily used being 9,000 feet. A saw speed of more 
than 9,000 feet can do no harm, because the trimmer has such a short cut- 
ting distance that imperfections in sawing are of minor importance. 

SIZE AND COST OF SAWS 

Saws vary in diameter from 28 to 40 inches. Most of them are 30 inches, 
although in a few years, with the increased use of 12 inch and 14 inch 
edgers, many larger saws will probably be used. 

Trimmer saws are spring set for cross cut work, and therefore have a 
small tooth and gullet. The space between the tooth points varies from 
1% to 1% inches, but ordinarily is 1^^ inches. Second hand shingle saws 
are often used for this work. 

Following are the size and cost of trimmer saws: 

SIZE AXD COST OF TRIMMER SAVt'S (1910) 

Kerf, Cost, Weight, 

In. $ lbs. 

.27 11.00 21 

.27 11.50 24.5 

.27 13.25 27 

.29 14.00 33 

.29 17.00 40 

.29 19.25 55 

.29 22.50 75 

Thirty inch trimmer saws will not cut stock thicker than 10 inches. 

64 



Diameter, 


v^auge 


in. 




28 


10 


30 


10 


32 


10 


34 


9 


36 


9 


38 


9 


4 


9 



When properly filed, trimmer saws will last several years unless they are 
broken by accident. Three saws a year will keep the average plant in 
operation. Trimmer saws are hammered and sharpened in proportion to 
their use. The following chart shows the frequency of such work in a Doug- 
las fir mill. 



Position of saw 


Position of t 


saw 








(distance from head end), Changed 


(distance from he 


lad end), 




Changed 


feet in days 


feet 






in 


days 


1 


22 








5 


2 7 


24 








5 


4 3 


26 








5 


6 6 


28 








5 


8 3 


30 








6 


10 5 


32 








6 


12 3 


34 








6 


14 4 


36 








6 


16 3 


38 








6 


18 4 


40 








7 


20 3 


42 








7 


The above tabulation provides 


for the care of 


saws 


where 


slabs and 


edgings are cut into 4 foot lengths 


on the trimmer. 


Where 


thi! 


3 is not done, 


the saws are not changed so often. 













POWER FOR TRIMMERS 

The load or power demand for a trimmer is exceedingly variable because 
of the intermittent character of the operation and the variation in the size 
of the stock and the number of saws. For this reason the average daily 
demand is not much in excess of the demand when the machine is running 
light. 

A 50 h. p. motor is usually employed, and may or may not be connected 
direct to the arbor which drives the series of pulleys used for the individual 
saws. The same motor also drives the feed chains of the machine, and 
sometimes the transfer chains which bring the lumber to the trimmer. 
The following power data are representative: 

Input running light 16 Kw. 

Average input for the day 29 Kw. 

Maximum — instantaneous 105 Kw. 

Maximum — sustained (5 seconds) 70 Kw 

Kw. Hrs. input per thousand feet 3.95 Kw. Hr. 

Input for various sizes of stock: 

3 saws— 2" X 16" 44 Kw. 

4 saws— 2" X 12" 52 Kw. 

9 saws— 2" X 12" 95 Kw. 

3 saws— 2" X 14" 48 Kw. 



1 — 3 saws in 1 x 4, 2 x 4, 1 x 8 | 



27 Max. 
18 Min. 



A 720-900 R. p. m., 50 h. p. motor, suitable for trimmer operation, costs 
$600-$700 (1916) and weighs 2,420-2,850 pounds complete with flexible coupling 
and starting compensator. 

OPERATIVES AND THEIR DUTIES 

The trimmerman sits in a "cage" above the trimmer table with full vision 
of the boards to be trimmed and the trimming machine. Like that of the 
edgerman, his work requires quick judgment in deciding how to increase 
the net return to the mill owner. The loss in volume by trimming must 
be rapidly and constantly weighed against the gain in value of the remaining 
piece. In addition, each cut must be governed by the lengths desired, and 
the trimmerman must therefore know the actual and relative lumber values 
for each grade and size. 

When a piece divides itself naturally into two distinct grades, the oper- 
ation is quite simple. But when several defects are scattered through a 

55 



high grade piece, the task of balancing waste and increased value is much 
harder. To do this quickly requires a great deal of practice. Many trimmer- 
men have a good idea of how their work should be done, but the speed and 
strain under which they work prevent the best results. Others give little 
thought to relative values, but trim out the defects as they appear and 
assume that they have accomplished their work correctly. 

The trimmerman is usually assisted in his work by two helpers, though 
in some of the more modern plants properly designed he has but one helper. 
When two men are used they slide or lift the pieces from the transfer chains 
to the feed table, and as it is conveyed toward the saws, the trimmerman 
lowers the proper saw or saws to give the desired board length or lengths. 
Where but one man is used, the transfer chains are extended, so that they 
overhang the feed table at a height of about 12 inches as shown in Fig. 6. 
The movements of both the transfer chains and the feed chains are con- 
trolled by the trimmerman. As each board drops from the transfer upon the 
feed table, it turns in falling so that the trimmerman has an opportunity to 
see both sides of the piece. The duty of the helper in this case is to 
straighten up pieces on the transfer and pull them toward or push them 
from the zero saw on the feed table when they are not in the correct 
longitudinal position to be trimmed properly. 

TIMBER TRIMMERS 

Equipment for trimming timbers (Fig. 21) in Douglas fir mills consists of 
a single circular saw which is raised or lowered by means of steam or air 
cylinders or counterweights. There are two general styles, namely, those 
suspended above the rolls and those below the rolls. The latter is the pre- 
vailing type. 

These timber saws are usually located on the main live rolls close to the 
rear end of the mill where the work can be conducted without interfering 
with other operations. One type of saw raises in a straight line and another 
in an arc. The latter type, shown in Fig. 21 is said to be the better. One 
man can operate one of these machines and look after other work when no 
timbers are being cut. 

Disappearing timber trimmers cost complete, exclusive of saw and motor, 
from $200 to $225 (1916) and weigh from 2,000 to 2,500 pounds, depending 
upon the style. The installation cost is from $30 to $40. 

The saws vary in size with the size of the timbers to be trimmed. The 
48 inches and 50 inch saws are most common (1916). 

rOST OF SAWS FOR DISAPPEARIIVG TIMBER TRIMMERS (191G) 

Cost 
Diameter, Gauge Weight, F.O.B. coast, 

in. lbs. $ 

48 8 136 41.25 

50 8 148 46.75 

52 7 160 52.25 

54 7 170 57.75 

56 7 180 66.00 

58 7 195 74.25 

60 6 210 82.50 

Like the trimmer saws, these saws are spring set for cross cut work. 
Normally they require filing about once a week. One extra saw should be 
available in case of breakage. 

The saws are operated at a speed of from 9,000 to 10,000 feet per minute. 

The power demand for timber trimming is extremely variable; the 
actual consumption is low though the demand in the cut is often con- 
siderable. Fortunately, the demand in the cut can be regulated by the 
operator, so that a small motor of from 5 to 7.5 h. p. can be used, even 
though the maximum demand would require a much larger motor if the saw 
were forced rapidly through the cut. The fly wheel affect of the heavy saw 

56 




Fig. 21. 

56-inch timber 

trimming 

saw. 



57 



is of great assistance, since the duration of cutting is very short and the saw 
has opportunity to pick up between operations. 

The following data obtained on a 60 inch timber saw are illustrative: 

Input running light 3.5 h. p 

Starting — sustained 14 h. p 

12 X 12— slow 8.5 h. p 

12 X 12— fast 11 h. p 

16 X 6— slow 11 h. p 

Average load in cut 8 h. p 

The motors for this class of work cost from $125 to $215 (1916), depend- 
ing upon the size and speed. 

SAWMILL ROLLS AND CONVEYORS 
LIVE ROLLS 

Live rolls are used for conveying cants and boards, lengthwise, to and 
from the various machines. The size of the rolls and their spacing depends 
upon the size and weight of the pieces to be moved. The usual spacing is 
five feet, although in some mills it is four feet. With a 4-foot spacing 
there is less chance of short pieces being caught between the rolls, but the 
expense of installation is greater. 

There are several types of rolls on the market. One has three bearings 
and the gears are encased in an oil-filled jacket to reduce the wear. This 
is being largely used in the better built mills, and though its cost is greater, 
it probably gives better satisfaction in the long run than the common rolls 
with two bearings and no oil filled gear case. 

Where the boards or cants are to travel at a high rate (500 feet or over) 
the rolls are sometimes driven by chain and sprocket instead of by bevel 
gears. 

The movement or control of the rolls is usuaUy left to one of the oper- 
atives nearest them, although in large mills several series of rolls and 
transfers are frequently operated by a man who does nothing else. The 
usual rim speeds of rolls are from 150 to 300 feet per minute, although 
faster speeds up to 550 feet per minute are used to take lumber away from 
fast feed headsaws. High rim speed greatly increases both the wear and 
power required. 

Owing to the variety of rolls and boxes on the market, it is impossible 
to give accurate costs and weights of such items. The following, however, 
are prices of cast chilled rolls with ordinary gears and three-way gear boxes 
in use in the better constructed mills. Cheaper equipment may be purchased. 

CAST ROLLS FOR GENERAL WORK (1010) 



Size, 


Weight, 


Shaft. 


Delivered cost — each, 


in. 


lbs. 


in. 


$ 


10 X 30 


475 


2A 


30.00 


10 X 36 


665 


2A 


35.00 


10 X 42 


610 


26 


38.00 


12 X 36 


700 


2A 


44.00 


12 X 42 


840 


2 1 


55.00 


12 X 48 


925 


2 t 


60.00 


14 X 42 


1,025 


36 


65.00 


14 X 48 


1,125 


36 


70.00 



PIPE ROLLS (BEHIND EDGERS) (1910) 

Size, Weight, Shaft, Delivered cost — each, 

in. lbs. in. $ 

8 X 60 500 2-h 30.00 

8 X 72 550 2-h 35.00 

10 X 60 700 2i\ 40.00 

10 X 72 775 26 45.00 

10 X 84 850 26 50.00 

The above weights and costs include 5 feet of standard shafting used 
for each size and 3-way oil case boxes for each roll. They do not include 
any drives, trusses, or skids. 

58 



The total installed cost of the wooden portion of live roll frames is from 
70 to 75 cents per linear foot. The wooden frames require from 25 to 30 
board feet of select common lumber per linear foot of rolls. 

A typical live roll drive designed for extra heavy work is shown in Pig. 
22. It can be used with either shaft or motor drive. For light work the 
multiple gear is eliminated. These drives are made in two or three sizes to 
meet different working demands. For comparatively light work they cost 
|125 and weigh about 1,650 pounds; for heavy work they cost $150 and weigh 
about 2,000 pounds (1916). These figures include boxes, pulleys, friction 
gears, and other parts except belts. 

The following data give a general idea of the power required to drive live 
rolls as determined from tests made on different numbers of rolls of vari- 
ous sizes operated at different speeds. They indicate that the speed and 
type of the rolls are a greater factor than the size and number. The addi- 
tional load when cants or boards are carried is usually negligible. 




Fig. 22. Double geared live roll drive for heavy work. 



LIVE ROLL POWER REQ,tlIRElVIENTS 



Number 


Size of rolls. 


Kind 


Kim speed, 


Power usimI 


of rolls 


in. 


of rolls 


ft. per mill. 


Kw. 


10 


10 X 80 


Pipe 


300 


1.47 


21 


8 X 36 


Pipe 


237 


2.4 


5 


8 X 36 


Cast 


200 


1.2 


5 


10 X 36 


Pipe 


155 


1.2 


10 


10 X 48 


Pipe 


150 


1.3 


11 


10 X 48 


Pipe 


150 


1.3 


13 


12 X 48 


Cast 


283 


1.55 


13 


12 X 48 


Cast 


380 


4.6 



The above are for the rolls only and do not include friction loss of trans- 
mission and motor losses. 

The usual size of motors for this work is from 7.5 to 15 h. p. 

COST OF LIVE ROLL IHOTOR.S (1910) 

Horse power. Weight, Cost delivered, 

h. p. lbs. $ 



5 

7.5 
10 
15 



340 

750 

1,120 

1,520 



125.00 
245.00 
335.00 
405.00 



Motors complete with pulleys, base, compensators. On a 5 h. p. motor 
no starting compensator is required; price includes starting switch. 



69 



KICK-OFF SKIDS 

Kick-off skids, Fig. 23, are used to slide the cants or boards from the 
rolls at right angles to the direction the stock is moving. This may be done 
automatically by means of tripping devices, as in the sketch, or by a lever 
or electric button operated by the nearest operative or a man whose time 
is devoted to operating live rolls and transfers. 

These skids are made in various sizes for use with rolls of different diam- 
eters and widths. They come complete with chains and sprockets. The 
costs given below include the skids, boxes, and the usual amount of shaft- 
ing. Steam or air cylinders for operating an ordinary series of these skids 
cost about $50.00. 

COST OP KKK-OFF SKID<$ (1916) 

Size of 
rolls, 
in. 
10 X 36 
10 X 42 
12 X 36 
12 X 42 
12 X 48 

An electric device has recently been perfected which opens and closes 
the valves on such cylinders, enabling them to be operated by means of a 
button from any part of the mill. 





Approximate cost 


Velght, 


of 


each skid. 


lbs. 




1 


525 




50.00 


550 




52.00 


575 




55.00 


625 




60.00 


650 




65.00 



/Sx/6 




^6>^/2^^ 



T^ 1^ 



e£h 



-^^^" 



^ 



m: 



£S 



£S 



y^ 




60 



Fig. 29. Side elevation of sorting 1 



As is shown in tlie sketch, the skid chains are driven by means of sprock- 
ets on the live roll shaft, so that no provision for drive is necessary, except 
employment of a little larger motor on the live rolls. 





f 



■~i~H 




Fig. 23. Top, side and end elevations of a series of automatic kick-off skids. 






J= 



TRANSFER CRANET 





/0:</2. 



monorail, showing transfer crane. 



61 



DEAD ROLLS 

Dead rolls are used at various places about the plant where driven rolls 
are too costly or are undesirable from an operating standpoint. They are 
employed in front of edgers, resaws, gang saws, and the like, and are also 
used for distributing timbers along the timber storage skids. The material 
is usually pushed by hand or pulled with a picaroon. 

SIZE AND COST OF DEAD ROLLS (1916) 



Size, 


Weight, 


Size of shaft. 


Cost delivered 


In. 


lbs. 


in. 


- $ 


10 X 24 


218 




\i 


14.25 


10 X 30 


245 


1 


4 


15.50 


10 X 36 


272 


11 


17.00 


10 X 72 


650 




i 


40.00 


8 X 24 


154 


1 i 


11.50 


8 X 30 


176 




1 


12.50 


8 X 36 


198 




1 


13.50 


8 X 72 


475 




1 


30.00 


6 X 24 


115 


i^_ 


8.50 


6 X 30 


125 


1 A 


9.00 


6 X 36 


148 


ItV 


9.50 


6 X 72 


350 


lA 


25.00 



The above costs and weights include 2 boxes for each roll. 



t^Z£^ 



s-o 



'IK '■ 



6-0' 



'-/^ '''■a/f/i^f jp/focHST 



6-0- ^ 



2% SMrr^ 



PLA/N C/^/i//\/S 



9 ^" ofi/i'E sppoc/frrs 



4 

A 



s-o 



1 



/O-O' 



/^■T't sppoc^frs 



'■X'X/2 

5// Aprs - 



Fig. 24. Typical lumber transfer and storage table. 

62 



TRANSFER TABLES 

Transfer tables or chains are used to convey boards and cants sideways 
from one machine to another. They also serve as storage places for material 
waiting its turn to be fed through machine. They should be as long (direc- 
tion of movement) as space and expense will permit, in order to insure 
plenty of room for the accumulation of stock and to prevent any part of the 
mill clogging when machines are stopped temporarily. 

A typical transfer layout is shown in Fig. 24; the side elevations are 
shown in the general mill sketches. This one is designed to accumulate lum- 
ber for and convey it to a resaw. The spacing and number of chains depends 
upon the lengths of stock to be handled. The pieces are deposited endwise 
either from live rolls or from belt conveyors upon the short chains and then 
upon the long chains. The short chains are of the roofed type (Fig. 25) to 
prevent the ends of the boards from catching on them, and they run contin- 
uously; while the long chains are plain (Fig. 26) and are moved at the will 
of the operative feeding the resaw. Each of the two kinds of chains is made 
in a variety of sizes as shown in the table following. 




Fig. 26. Plain transfer chain. 



The plain chain most used in Douglas fir mills is No. 2; and the roofed 
chain No. 4. The others are used for light or heavy work as the case may be. 
Chain No. 3 is used mostly for driving purposes. The cost of these chains 
varies with the price of metal, but the figures given in the table may be con- 
sidered as representative. 





Type 

Plain 

Plain 

Plain 

Roofed 

Roofed 


COST 

Width, 
in. 

2% 

31/8 

4 
3 
3% 


OK CHAINS (191(5) 


Approximate 

weight 

per foot, 

lbs. 

4.2 
6.9 
4.8 
5.2 


Approximate 

cost 

per foot, 

$ 

0.20 

.30 

.50 

.45 

.50 


Size 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


Height, Pitch, 
in. in. 

1 2.06 
IVs 2.06 
1% 4.0 
IH* 4.0 
2%» 4.0 



' Height at center. 

The cost of transfer tables varies to such an extent that it is not feasible 
to present the cost figures for completed tables of different sizes. 

The following figures for the essential metal parts can be combined, how- 
ever, to estimate, with reasonable accuracy, the cost of any given table, 
where the number of chains and their length is known. 

63 



COST OF PARTS OF TRANSFER TABLES (1010) 

Heavy (large) Medium Light (small) 

Weight, Cost, Weight, Cost, Weight, Cost, 

Part Ills. .$ lbs. $ lbs. $ 

1. Front and rear sprockets, 

boxes, and bolts 165 15.00 160 13.00 150 10.00 

2. Front shaft per foot 2;; .80 20 .70 15 .50 

3. Tall shafts each lO .60 lO .60 lO .60 

4. Plain chains per foot.... fi.O .50 4.2 .30 3 .20 

5. Roofed chains per foot .... 5.2 .50 4.8 .45 

The wooden portions of the tables are not uniform in design and cost, 
but they usually contain about 5 board feet to each square foot of table and 
cost from 10 to 12 cents per square foot installed. 

The size and cost of drives for transfer chains varies with the size of 
pulleys, gears, etc., to such an extent that it is difficult to give more than 
very general figures for such equipment. Below is given the total cost of 
pulleys, gears, frictions, axes, collars, shafting, and sprocket for drives of 
three typical sizes. 

COST OF URIVES (1910) 

Approximate weight. Approximate cost, 
Class lbs. $ 

Heavy (large) 2.500 150.00 

Medium 1,900 125.00 

Light (small) 1,450 100.00 

The power demand for transfer chains is small. 5, 7.5, and 10 horse- 
power are ample for the small, medium, and large tables, respectively. 

COST OF MOTORS FOR TRA:VSFER TABLES (1910) 

Power, Speed, Weight, Cost delivered, 

h. p. R. p. m. lbs. $ 

5 900 500 Ifid.OO 

7.5 900 750 245.00 

10 900 880 266.00 

All motors are of the belted type, complete with base, pulleys, and starting 
compensator (no compensator included with 5 h. p. motor). 

WASTE CONVEYORS 

Trough conveyors are used for removing the waste from the various 
machines. The large or slab conveyors are used to collect the 4 foot and 
shorter waste from the slasher and trimmer, and convey it to the burner, 
while small conveyors of the same type or box-like are employed to collect 
the sawdust from the various machines and carry it into the boiler room, 
where it is used for fuel. 

The cost of conveyors is not uniform because of the differences in sizes 
and types of chains which may be used, but the following costs are illus- 
trative: 

COST OF COWEVOR CHAINS AND DRIVES (1910) 

Cost of chains Weight of Cost Weiglit 

per linear foot chains of of 

of conveyor, per linear foot, drive, drive. 

Purpose $ lbs. $ lbs. 

Headsaw (dust) 1.75 25 200 3,000 

Edg-er (dust) 1.25 16 100 1,800 

Resaw (dust) 1.75 25 200 3.000 

Re-edg-er (dust) 1.25 16 100 1,800 

To boilers (dust) 1.75 25 200 3,000 

Main (slab) 4.00 100 275 4,500 

To burner (waste) 3.00 40 275 4,500 

The wooden portions of slab conveyors require from 50 to 60 board feet 
of lumber per linear foot for the portion inside the mill, and as much as 
from 80 to 90 board feet where trestle work is necessary, as in the case of 
burner conveyors. The sawdust conveyors require from 15 to 30 board feet 
per linear foot when laid on the floor of the plant, and from SO to 50 board 
feet when elevated. Figuring lumber, labor, and hardware at $20 per 1,000 
board feet, the total cost per linear foot is two cents for each board foot. 
The higher figure in each case represents the heaviest construction ordi- 
narily used. 

64 



The rate of speed at which the various conveyors are run is about as 
follows: 

SPEED OF CONVEYORS 

Past. Jlediuiii. Slow, 

Use of convevor ft. per luiii. ft. per niin. ft. per min. 

Headsaw (dust) '. 70 65 50 

Edger (dust) 80 70 60 

Resaw (dust) 80 70 60 

Boiler (dust) 7(1 65 50 

Main (slabs) 50 40 30 

Burner (slabs) 30 25 20 

Where slabs are removed from the conveyor for lath or wood, the speeds 
are regulated to give ample time to take out the pieces. 

The amount of power required varies with the length, size, and number 
of chains, and the amount of material conveyed. Typical power demands 
are as follows: 

<0>VEYOR POWER RECORDS 
Sn^vduNt <'onveyors 

Case 1. Length. 85 ft.; rise. 10 ft. 6 in., 12.4 per cent; 8 x 16 
in. chain, 65 ft. per minute: 

Average 2.2 Kw. 

Partly blocked 7.0 Kw. 

Case 2. Length, 104 ft.; rise, 7 ft.; 6.7 per cent; U x 2 x 8 x 

12 in. cliaiii. 70 ft. per minute: 

Average 2.7 Kw. 

Case 3. Length, 60 ft.; rise, 5 ft.; 8.3 per cent; 6x8 inch 

chain, 63 ft. per minute: 

Average 1.5 Kw. 

Case 4. Length, 80 ft.; rise. 6 ft.; 7.5 per cent; 8 x 16 inch 

chain, 65 ft. per minute: 

Average ' 1.6 Kw. 

Maximum 3.1 Kw. 

Slab Coiiveyor.s 

Case 1. Main slab conveyor, length. 138 ft.; rise, 32 ft.; 23.2 
per cent; chain, ^4 x- 2 x 8 x 12 inches. 70 ft. per 
minute: 

Average • 7.0 Kw. 

Heavy 10.2 Kw. 

Case 2. Conveyor for trash under carriage. length. 78 ft.; 

6 ft. lift; 7.7 per cent; chain, i/a x 2 x 8 x 12 inches, 

70 ft. per minute: 

Average 18 Kw. 

Heavy 2.8 Kw. 

Case 3. Main slab conveyor, length 104 ft.; rise, 9 ft.; 8.7 

per cent; double Vi x 2 x 8 x 12 inches; 25 ft. per 

minute: 

Average 5.8 Kw. 

Very heavy 9.8 Kw. 

Case 4. Wood conveyor from timber trimmer, length, 110 
ft.; almost level; Va x 2 x 8 x 12 inch chain; 66 ft. 
per minute: 
Average 3.0 Kw. 

Case 5. Main slab conveyor from trimmer; lengtli, 100 ft.; 

rise, 4 ft.; 4 per cent; double % x 2 x 8 x 12 inches 

at 57 ft. per minute: 

Average 4.2 Kw. 

Very heavy 9.8 Kw. 

Case 6. Main slab conveyor, length. 85 ft.; rise. 9 ft. 6 in.; 

11.2 per cent; double i/i x 2 x 8 x 12 inches at 57 ft. 

per minute: 

Average 4.3 Kw. 

Maximum 5.8 Kw. 

Only these conveyors include motor losses and transmission friction. For 
all others the inputs are for the conveyors alone with average load conditions. 
The starting conditions closely approximate those for sorting tables. 

CONVEYOR MOTOR COSTS (1»1«) 

Power, Speed of motor, Weit?lit, Cost delivered, 

h. p. R. p. m. lbs. % 

5 1,200 525 195.00 

7.5 1,200 835 270.00 

10 1,200 930 347.00 

Motors are all back geared 7:1 and furnished complete with base and 
starting compensator. The 5 h. p. motor has a starting switch. 

65 



ROLLER BAND RESAWS 

Roller band resaws are coming into more general use because of their 
small operating cost and large capacity. They are used as auxiliaries to the 
headsaw to reduce the loss in kerf and increase the output of the plant. 
They may be placed either in the mill or just outside along the grading 
table (Figs. 5, 14, 27). If only square edged or practically square edged 
stock is to be put through them, they are usually placed near the grading 
table. If they are to be used for working up slabs, they are placed in the 
mill near the headsaw. 

Roller resaws are either vertical or horizontal with respect to the posi- 
tion of the board during the sawing operation, or, in other words, the plane 
of the cutting line. The horizontal type is best suited to working up slabs 
and material which has not been edged, while the vertical type is best 
adapted to squared up stock, although the two are more or less interchange- 
able. 

VERTICAL RESAWS 

The vertical resaws are of single and twin types, (Fig. 14). The twin type 
has the advantage of making two cuts at once, and therefore has a much 
larger capacity, although it is not so flexible as the single band and works 
to best advantage when used along with a single saw to assist in breaking 
up thick stock. 

Both resaws are quickly adjustable to cants of different thicknesses for 
the production of boards of different thicknesses, but each delivers its maxi- 
mum output when sawing stocks of constant size. 

The resaws commonly used in fir plants have 60, 66, 72, or 84 inch 
wheels, and are usually run with saws 6, 8, or 10 inches wide and from 30 
to 36 feet long. They are designed to take stock from 12 to 18 inches thick 
(spread of feed rolls) and from 24 to 36 inches wide (distance between table 
and saw guide) depending upon the size of machine purchased. 

The feed varies from 80 to 225 feet per minute, although faster feeds can 
be used if larger and heavier saws are installed. This may mean an in- 
crease in kerf, and the waste must be balanced against increased output. 

The capacity of a vertical resaw varies directly with the feed used, the 
thickness and width of stock, and the time lost in adjustment, changing 
saws, etc. The writer has seen as much as 200,000 feet of 2 inch stock from 
6 to 12 inches wide come from a vertical resaw in a day, which indicates what 
one of these machines can do when fast and continuous feeds are ursed. The 
usual output at plants where both one inch and two inch stock are sawed is 
from 40,000 to 60,000 board feet per day. 

"Vertical resaws are ordinarily run at from 9,000 to 10,000 feet per minute. 
The tooth space is usually 1% or 2 inches, the latter being more common. 





Sizes 


AND 


COST 


OF 


BAND RESAW 


SAWS 


(1910) 








Cost of saw s 








Cost of saws 






per 


Uneal foot a 


t 






per li 


neal foot at 


Width, 




coast termi 


inals 




Width, 




coast terminals, 


in. 


Gauge 




$ 






in. 


Gauge 




$ 


6 


16 




1.14 






8 


17 




1.44 


6 


17 




1.08 






9 


16 




1.62 


7 


16 




1.32 






9 


17 




1.62 


7 


17 




1.26 






10 


16 




1.80 


8 


16 




1.44 






10 


17 




1.80 



The above costs are for any tooth spacing, and include brazing and ten- 
sioning. 

Resaw saws require the same kind of care as headsaws. They must be 
changed at least twice daily, and should be changed four times if maximum 
feeds are maintained. When taken off, they are swaged, tensioned, and 
gummed as their condition demands. 

The cost and weight of vertical resaws depends upon their size, style, 
and make. The following data are illustrative only: 

66 



SIZE3 AND COST OF VERTICAL, RESAWS 

Diameter Size of Approximate 

of wheels, saw. Weight, cost delivered, 

in. in. lbs. $ 

60 7 11,000 1.800 

66 8 13,000 2,000 

72 9-10 16,000 2,500 

84 10-12 18,000 3,000 

Vertical resaws are usually equipped with from 50 to 100 h. p. motors, 
according to the size of stock to be cut and the feed to be employed. 
The following power data give an idea of the actual power used in sawing 
stock of varying widths at a feed of 185 feet per minute. 

Average input throughout day 48 Kw. 

Maximum instantaneous input 144 Kw, 

Maximum sustained input 109 Kw, 

Sustained inputs 2x4 inch 42 Kw. 

Sustained inputs 2x6 inch 52 Kw. 

Sustained inputs 2x10 inch 63 Kw. 

Sustained inputs 2x14 inch 74 Kw. 

Sustained inputs 2x16 inch 86 Kw. 

The number of men required to operate a typical vertical resaw depends 
upon the size of the stock and the ease and speed with which the lumber is 
put into the machine. The resawyer often feeds slow machines alone, or he 
may have one or even two helpers in front of the machine. If the machine de- 
posits its material upon rolls, no men may be needed behind it, or there may 
be from one to three, depending upon the method of disposal and the amount 
of sorting required. 

Besides feeding the stock into the machine, the sawyer must adjust 
the space between the feed rolls for stoqk of different thicknesses; and at 
some plants he changes the speed of feed for stock of different widths, al- 
though this is seldom necessary where machines are equipped with suffi- 
cient power. The sawyer's helper arranges the stock to be fed into the 
machine where pieces of varying width are being run, and selects it in a way 
to reduce the amount of adjustment to a minimum. To save time in adjust- 
ing the saws, the stock should, wherever possible, be sorted to thickness be- 
fore going to the resaw. 

Where the stock from the resaw does not go back upon the sorting chains 
as in (Figs. 4, 5 and 6) the helper (offbearer) places the boards on 
one or more trucks. 

HORIZONTAL RESAWS 

The horizontal resaw (Pig. 27) is designed primarily for working up 
slabs and flitches with rounded edges, although it can be used for the same 
class of work as the vertical resaw, It has the advantage of eliminating 
the labor in turning the board on edge for feeding into the machine. These 
machines are usually installed in the sawmill proper, although they may be 
placed in the remanufacturing section along the sorting chains, like the 
vertical resaws. 

They are made in two sizes, 6 feet or 7 feet in wheel diameter, and take 
9 or 10 inch and 10 or 12 inch saws, respectively. The saws can be raised 
12 inches and the table lowered 4 or 5 inches, giving a wide range of stock 
thickness which the machine will accommodate. The feed tables are 36 
inches wide. The machines are made with or without divided and adjustable 
tables. The divided tables (Fig. 27) permit feeding two pieces of different 
thickness at the same time, but unless there are extra men and good feeding 
facilities, this can seldom be taken advantage of when fast feeds are used. 
Divided tables also reduce the amount of adjustment necessary and thus in- 
crease the capacity of the machine when mixed thicknesses are fed. The 
divided roll table is equipped with a steel center guide which can be raised 

67 



and lowered between the tables. This is operated by a hand lever placed at 
the side of the machine: In resawing two thicknesses of lumber at the same 
time, the center guide is raised to prevent the stock working from one table 
to the other. When the tables are at the same level, the center guide can 
be lowered, and material the full width of the table fed into the machine. 

The personnel required for the horizontal resaws and their duties are the 
same as for the vertical saws, as are also the spacing of teeth, speed of 
saws, and cost of saw blades. 

Horizontal resaws are designed with constant or variable rates of feed 
from 60 to 200 feet per minute, depending upon the make. Sometimes they 
are fed as fast as 300 feet per minute. 

The cost and weight of resaws of various sizes depends upon the make 
and style, and it is impossible to give more than rough figures. 




size, 


Type of 


Weight 


ft. 


table 


lbs. 


6 


Plain 


22,000 




Divided 


26,000 


7 


Divided 


30.000 



Fig. 27. Right hand horizontal band resaw with divided feed table. 

COST OF HORIZOXTAl, RESAAV.S (191«) 

Approximate cost, 
$ 

2,150 
2,550 
2,900 

The large horizontal resaws placed in the main mill are usually equipped 
with from 100 to 200 h. p., since they are often called upon to cut wide cants. 
No records are available of the power demands on machines of this class, but 
from the general demand on the vertical resaws, as shown by the data pre 
viously presented, it would appear that much larger motors are necessary 
for the wide or double pieces such as the horizontal might receive. 

RESAW MOTORS 

SIZE AND COST OF RESAW MOTORS (1910) 

Power, "Weight, Approximate cost, 

h. p. lbs. $ 

50 2,200 635 

75 3,300 880 

100 4,600 1,180 

150 6,600 1,565 

68 



Motors belted complete with base, pulley, drum controller, and necessary 
Etarting equipment. 

GANG RESAWS 

The gang type of resaw (Fig. 15) is used in the Douglas fir mills to re- 
duce round or square edged cants or flitches coming from the head saw or 
edger into a number of boards or pieces of dimension stock in a single opera- 
tion. The width of the boards corresponds to the thickness of the cant, and 
their thickness to the distance between the saws. Ordinarily, these ma- 
chines are placed on the main mill floor, so that cants may be diverted to 
them instead of to the edger. They may be placed outside the mill in the 
remanufacturing plant (Figs. 6 and 15) along the grading and sorting 
tables. In the latter case they are smaller and are used principally for re- 
sawing square edged cants into 4 or 6 inch strips for flooring and similar 
patterns, and are then called flooring gangs. 

The machine shown in Fig. 15 is the style and size ordinarily placed 
inside the mill and is wide enough to cake cants the full width of most logs; 
the smaller one shown in (Figs. 6 and 15) is used on the narrower and 
square edged cants. 

The gangs are used principally to cut clear cants 3 and 4 inches thick 
into 1 X 3 or 1 X 4 flooring strips, or 6, 8, 10, and 12 inch cants into 1x6, 
1 X 8, 1 X 10, or 1 X 12 clear boards for making flooring, ceiling, drop siding, 
or finish patterns. Sometimes the gangs are used to make dimension lum- 
ber (2 inches thick) from cants containing only common lumber; and many 
of the wide gangs are arranged so that part of the saws are spaced 2 inches 
and part 1 inch to permit sending both common and clear cants through re- 
spective parts of the machine at the same time. When this is not possible, 
space is often provided to store the common cants when the machine is set 
for cutting clear 1 inch strips and vice versa when it is set for 2 inch com- 
mon. The saw settings are adapted to any thickness of stock, but it re- 
quires considerable time to change from one to another. 

The sawing is accomplished by feeding the cants horizontally against a 
battery of saws hung vertically in an oscillating sash which runs at the 
rate of from 250 to 300 strokes per minute, according to the rate of feed and 
the thickness of stock cut. In the old style of machines the amount of os- 
cillation for given feeds was regulated by the sawyer, but the new machines 
are equipped with a device which changes the adjustment automatically with 
different feeds and always insures proper speed. 

The cost and weight of the usual sizes of large gang and flooring resaws 
used in Douglas flr mills are shown below: 

SIZE AND COST OF GAXG RK.SAWS (101«) 

Maximum Maximum Normal Approximate Cost 

thifkness, width, 10-hour cut, weight, delivered, 

in. in. bd. ft. lbs. $ 

8 32 25,000 17,000 2,000 

10 32 30,000 19,000 2,250 

12 32 35,000 22,000 2,550 

12 40 65.000 35.000 4,250 

12 48 80,000 45,000 5.000 

These costs are complete with feed-in rolls and an alignment guide for 
the feed. 

SPEED OP FEED FOR GANG RESAWS 

Size of gang. Size of stock, 

in. in. 

8 or 10 X 32 4 

8 or 10 X 32 8 

12 X 32 4 

12 X 32 8 

12 X 32 12 

12 X 48 4 

12 X 48 6 

12 X 48 8 

12 X 48 12 

69 



Speed, 


Feed per stroke, 


strokes per min. 


in. 


300 


V-i 


300 


y* 


275 


% 


275 


% 


275 


14 


250 


% 


250 


% 


250 


% 


250 


Vi 



There are many motor-driven gang saws in successful operation, and if 
the mill is electrically driven this style of gang is usually preferable to the 
direct steam cylinder drive. The following power records are illustrative of 
the demand when cutting typical stock on a 12 x 32 inch machine: 

No. 1. Stocks 30 X 8 inches (2 to 4 inch pieces), fir: 

Rate of feed 8 feet per minute 

Number of saws cutting 27 

Working input: 

Average 55.7 Kw. 

Minimum 41.1 Kw. 

Maximum 62.5 Kw. 

Running light input 11.9 Kw. 

No. 2. Stock 30 X 12 inches, fir: 

Rate of feed 8 feet per minute 

Number of saws cutting 27 

Working input: 

Average 86.5 Kw. 

Minimum 56 Kw. 

Maximum 92 Kw. 

.SIZK AND COST OF GANG RKSAAVi MOTORS (1010) 

Size of gang. Power, Weight, Cost delivered, 

in. h. p. lbs. $ 

,^ ^ HI 35 1,900 650 

10 X 32 j 

12 X 32 50 2,960 830 

12 X 40 ) 

i2 X 48J ■^S 3,800 1,070 

14 X 48 100 4.600 1,145 

These motors have ample power to operate the above machines under 
usual operating conditions; if abnormal feeds are to be used, the motor sizes 
must be increased. 



' Motors oi' slij) ring type belted complete with base, pulley, controller, and 
resistance. 

sizio A\u ( OS r OF (;a\<; saw saws (iyi«> 



Size of 








Tooth 




Cost each 


Gang, 




Jjength, 


Width, 


space. 


Kerf 


delivered. 


in. 


Gauge 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


$ 


8 X 32 


16-20 


24 


4% 


1% 


Vs-h 


1.25 


10 X 32 


16-20 


27 


5 


1% 


Vs-i's 


1.40 


12 X 32 


16-18 


31 


6 


IVi 


%-3^ 


1.70 


12 X 40 


16 


34 


8 


1% 


% 


2.25 



RE-EDGERS 

Many boards which leave the mill and are deposited upon the grading 
table have wane along the edge or are half inferior and half high grade lum- 
ber. Boards of the first kind must be squared up on the edges; the others 
must be ripped in two. This process is called re-edging, and the work is 
usually accomplished on a pony edger in the re-manufacturing plant. In some 
cases this material is sent back into the main mill, where it goes through 
the main edger again or through a small edger or rip saw used for this pur- 
pose, 

The re-edgers are small, since the material handled is usually boards and 
dimension stock. They are of the same type as the edgers used in the pine 
mills; that is, there is a table in front of the machine and the saws are 
shifted from the end of the table. 

The feed may be as high as from 350 to 400 feet per minute, and the ca- 
pacity up to 50,000 or 60,000 feet per 10 hour day, but this is seldom needed. 

Usually a 4 inch edger is large enough. The machines come in different 
widths and are equipped with from two to four saws. Two are ordinarily 
sufficient. 

70 



WEIGHT AND COST OF RE-EDGERS (1910) 



Size, 


Number of 


Weight, 


Approxlmati 


e cost, 


in. 


saws 


lbs. 


$ 




4 X 32 


2 


2,800 


250 




4 X 42 


3 


3,000 


300 




4 X 48 


4 


3,300 


350 





These costs include both front and back rolls, but no saws or motor. 

Re-edger saws are of the inserted tooth type, similar to those used on the 
large machines but smaller. The rim speed is 9,000 per minute. Their size, 
weight, and cost are given below. 

SIZE AND COST OF RE-EDGER SAWS (1910) 

Diameter, Kerf, Cost, 

in. Gauge in. $ 

18 7 ^ 16.50 

20 7 % 18.50 

22 6 14 21.50 

24 6 % 26.00 

The extra teeth for these saws are 2i/^ cents each. 

Re-edger machines can be operated with motors of from 15 to 40 h. p. 
according to the speed of feed and the size of the machine. 

COST OF RE-EDGER MOTORS (1910) 

Power, Weiglit, Approximate cost, 

h. p. lbs. $ 

15 880 275 

20 1,200 325 

25 1,320 370 

30 1,670 405 

40 1,930 465 

Motors complete with starting compensators for direct connection. 

The machine is fed by one man who pushes each board to a point where 
it comes in contact with the feed rolls. As the board enters the machine it 
pushes back the upper hinged rolls, which ride on the top of the piece, force 
it down against the lower rolls and prevent the stock from being kicked out 
of the machine by the saws, since the harder the backward thrust, the 
tighter is the gripping action. Similar rolls at the rear of the machine re- 
move the boards to the rear table, where the oifbearer separates the waste 
from the good boards. Sometimes, however, this offbearing is done by the 
retrimmerman. 

RE-TRIMMERS 

A certain proportion of the boards and pieces of dimension stock which 
come from the main trimmer or from machines used in remanufacturing 
must be retrimmed. This work is usually done on a small trimmer placed in 
such a way that the material may be diverted from the grading table to this 
machine and returned to the table for reclassification after it has been cut. 

There are several types of machines which are suited to this work, rang- 
ing from a small swing cut-off saw to an elaborate trimmer similar to the 
main trimming equipment, but having only 12 or 13 saws. A machine which 
will answer the same purpose and cost much less is shown in (Fig. 28). 
This trimmer is of the under-cut pedal type and is designed to enable the 
operator to handle -the material himself instead of requiring an assistant. 
It cannot be used where large quantities of retrimmed stock must be handled 
but is particularly applicable to the layout referred to above for the re- 
trimmerman can act as offbearer for the re-edger in addition to performing 
his own duties. The saws are raised and lowered by pedals, and in general 
the operation is similar to that described for the main trimmers, except 
that slower feed and smaller saws are used. 

The retrimmers of the type shown cost about $1,000 when equipped with 
12 saws, (24 foot lumber) and proportionately more for more saws. They 
come complete with pulleys, chains, and wood work. The twelve-saw ma- 
chines weigh about 12,000 pounds. 

Retrimmer saws are usually 24 or 26 inches in diameter, though larger 
saws are sometimes used. 

71 



SIZE, WEIGHT, AND COST OF RETRIMMER SAWS (191C) 

Diameter of saws, Cost delivered, 

Gauge 



24 
26 
28 

30 



11 
11 
10 
10 



8.10 

9.60 

11.10 

13.20 



The amount of power required for the retrimmers varies from between 
5 and 7.5 h. p. for the single swing cut-off saw type to 30 h. p. for the elab- 
orate pneumatic type. The type shown requires about 20 h. p. 

COST OF RETRIMMER MOTORS (191G) 

Power, Weigiit, Cost delivered, 

h. p. lbs. $ 



5 

7.5 
10 
15 

20 
30 



lbs. 
340 
600 
750 
880 
1200 
1670 



118.50 
194.00 
245.00 
285.00 
339.00 
427.00 



Mntor.s complete with base, pulley, and starting compensator. 




Fig. 28. Retrimmer with pedal saw control. 



REFUSE HOGS 

Where mills require more fuel for their boilers tha'n can be supplied by 
the sawdust from the various machines, or where there is a market for 
"hogged" fuel, a hog is usually installed to chip tbe waste into small parti- 
cles. The following table gives the size, capacity, and cost of typical ma- 
chines. 

SIZE AND COST OF REFUSE HOGS 



Diameter 






Approximate 


Cost 


of drum, 


Capacity, 


Speed, 


weight, 


delivered, 


In. 


cords per hr.^ 


R. p. m. 


lbs. 


$ 


30 


6 


1,200 


3,000 


325 


34 


10 


1,150 


4,000 


400 


36 


12 


1,000 


7,000 


650 


48 


14 


850 


9.000 


750 



•One cord of slab yields 235 cubic feet of hogged waste. 

72 



The following power data from readings on a 48 inch hog are illustrative 
of the character and amount of the power demand for such machines: 

Running light — input 25.0 Kw. 

Average input throughout day 50.8 Kw, 

Maximum observed (instantaneous) 200.0 Kw. 

Maximum sustained input 156.0 Kw. 

Kw. Hrs. per cord of fuel 7.9 Kw. 

The above were average conditions where the hog was not crowded. 
The following data were taken during a short test with two men feeding eh 
fast as possible, although the capacity of the hog was not reached. 

Average input 77.4 Kw. 

Maximum sustained input 160 Kw. 

Maximum instantaneous input 240 Kw. 

SIZE AXD COST OF MOTORS (H)1<J> 

Slae of hog. Power of motor. Approximate weight, Cost delivered, 

in. h. p. lbs. $ 

30 30 1,670 428 

34 50 2,300 547 

36 75 2,630 742 

48 100 4,300 1.100 

60 150 6.200 1,450 

Motors complete with base, pulley, and starting compensator. 

These hogs are fed by hand, and one or several men are required, de- 
pending on the volume of material to be fed to the machine. One man can 
feed from 3 to 4 cords of material per hour. Usually the pieces are 
picked from the waste conveyor and dropped into the hog, although some- 
times the waste from lath machines is deposited directly in a hog instead of 
going over a conveyor. In this case the labor cost of hogging is negligible 

GRADING AND SORTING TABLES 

As the lumber comes from the mill it falls, rolls, or slides upon the grad- 
ing and sorting tables, where each piece is marked witli its grade or order 
number and placed with other pieces of the same grade and size for trans- 
portation to the yard, kiln, cars, or dock. The grading table is usually from 
30 to 32 inches high, from 40 to 60 feet long, and from 4 to 6 chains (24 to 
32 feet) wide. 

The sorting table is in reality a continuation of the grading table. There 
is usually but one sorting table in a small mill, but in large mills two or 
three are quite common. Even where more than one sorting table is used, 
the lumber all passes over one grading table and is then diverted to the 
various sorting tables by means of live roll or belt conveyors. The sorting 
tables are ordinarily from 300 to 400 feet long and provide for about sixty 
segregations on each side. They are from 3 to 6 chains (12 to 20 feet) 
wide; sometimes they are narrower at the end farthest from the mill be- 
cause the longest boards are usually sorted as near the mill as possible. 

The sorting chains are made as long as possible, for great length in- 
creases the number of segregations and eliminates further assortment in 
the yard. Where sufficient space is not available along the chains, the num- 
ber of segregations may be increased by using one truck for two sizes of 
material. 

Standard chains (Fig. 26) were formerly used almost exclusively on lum- 
ber sorters, but in recent years cables have gradually displaced them. The 
cables are said to be less likely to break; and when they do break, the sorter 
is not shut down. A % inch cable is usually employed. The chief advantage 
of a cable is that the entire 400 ft. sorter can be driven by a single drive; 
while if chains are used, a separate drive and motor must be installed each 

73 



100 feet because the standard chains are not strong enough to stand the 
strain when used in longer sections. 

The speed of sorting chains varies from a))out 10 to 65 feet per minute, 
depending upon their length, and the amount of material to he handled. The 
chains are usually run as slow as conditions will permit, since the slower 
they are run the more trucks can be taken care of by each man. Where the 
chains are divided into sections the speed is sometimes reduced as lumber 
gets farther from the mill and many of the pieces have been taken off. 

The cost of sorting tables is the same as that of any other transfer 
tables. Where cables are used, the drive for as much as 400 feet of table 
costs about $700 for four cables and proportionately more for 5 or 6, includ- 
ing all gears, boxes, sheaves, etc. The cables cost about 20 cents per foot. 
For short sections of sorting tables, 100 feet or so, a 5 h. p. motor is 
ample; but where the entire length is driven by a single motor, 10 or even 
15 h. p. is desirable for each section. The starting demand is very heavy, 
and friction drive is essential in order that the motor may get up to speed 
before the load is applied. . 

Five-horsepower motors weigh approximately 340 pounds and cost about 
$120 delivered (1916); 7.5 horsepower motors weigh 600 pounds and cost 
$194; 10 horsepower motors weigh 750 pounds and cost $245; and 15 horse- 
power motors weigh 880 pounds and cost $339. Motors complete with base, 
pulley, and starting compensator. 

Many builders make a practice of putting a shed over the sorting table. 
These sheds are usually 32 feet wide between posts and cost about 10 or 12 
cents per square foot. They contain about 3 or 4 board feet of lumber per ' 
square foot, exclusive of the floors and substructure 

The labor cost of grading (1913) varies from 2^/^ to ZV2 cents; and of 
sorting, from 18 to 25 cents per each thousand board feet. Twenty cents is 
a fair average for sorting where the conditions are at all favorable. The 
variation depends principally upon the character of the product and the 
wages paid. 
(-"^The grader, or marker, puts the grade or order number on each board 
with crayon, so that the men doing the sorting can tell upon which truck to 
place it. As the pieces pass along the table, they are watched by the sorters 
and pulled off upon trucks or into units for the monorail or crane. Where 
the monorail is used (Fig. 29) and the lumber is to go to the yard for air 
seasoning, sticks are placed between layers to prepare it for drying and to 
save the cost of doing this in the yard. 

At some plants, where an accurate record of the cut is desired, a tally- 
man is employed to record each piece. This not only gives a basis for pay- 
ing contract labor and carrying out bonus schemes, but it furnishes data on 
the amount of output for use in figuring costs and checking the quantity of 
material obtained for special orders. Operators who use such tallies find 
them well worth the small cost involved. 

About one man is required to each ten thousand feet of material cut 
daily; but at plants where the chains are slowed down and there is a large 
number of trucks, the number of men is greatly reduced. 

TIMBER STORAGE SKIDS 

Timber storage skids are placed along the loading spur for use in accum- 
ulating and handling material for timber orders. One skid is placed opposite 
each roll in the main section of live or dead rolls leading from the mill. 
The number of skids depends upon the length of the timber loading spur, 
which is usually several hundred feet long. 

These skids contain from 400 to 700 board feet of material each (i.e., the 
skid proper above the dock), depending upon their height and length as well 
as the size of timbers used. If the lumber is figured at $10 and the labor 
and hardware at $5 per 1,000 feet, the cost per skid is from $6 to $10. 

74 



The lumber is distributed along these storage skids by one or several 
men, who push the sticks from the rolls down the inclined timber. When a 
carload is assembled at one point a car is "spotted" opposite the skids and 
the loading begun. 

Usually, to faciliate loading, the top of the horizontal skid member is 
built at an elevation which will permit sliding most of the material down- 
ward Into gondola cars or upon flat cars. 

TIMBER SIZERS 

The timber sizer is usually considered part of the sawmill equipment, 
since it is generally placed at the end of the mill. From an operating and 
cost standpoint, however, it is a part of the planing equipment. 

Machines of this class must be built to stand the heavy work of surfac- 
ing large long pieces. They are built to take stock up to 30 inches wide and 
16, 20, or 24 inches thick. They are fed at from 20 to 80 feet per minute 
on big timbers and up to 125 feet on small stock, the speed depending upon 
the size of stock and the amount of material which must be removed to get 
the required finished si,zes. As much as two inches can be removed from a 
face if necessary; but, of course, this is seldom done, for the stock is made 
within one-fourth inch of the correct size on the head saw or edger. 

The sizes, weights, and costs of timber sizers are as follows: 

COSTS OF TIMBER SIZERS <1916) 

Size, Weight, Cost delivered, 

in. lbs. $ 

12 X 30 21,500 3,400 

16 X 30 22,000 3,450 

20 X 30 23,000 3,575 

24 X 30 23,500 3,675 

12 X 20 17,750 2,800 

16 X 20 18,500 2,900 

20 X 20 19,500 3,050 

12 X 24 19,000 2,950 

16 X 24 19,500 3.050 

20 X 24 20,500 3.200 

24 X 24 21,500 3.350 

One man can operate one of these sizers as well as the various transfer 
skids used in conveying the timbers to and from the machine. There are 
times also when the machine is not being used at all and the operative can 
assist in other parts of the plant. 

The large timber sizers are usually equipped with from 60 to 115 h. p 
motors, depending upon the maximum thickness of stock to be handled. The 
following data show the power demand for this class of work on a 16 x 30 
inch sizer fed at 80 feet per minute. 

Input running light 15 Kw. 

Maximum sustained input 66 Kw. 

Maximum instantaneous input 97.5 Kw. 

7^ X 9% inch stock — Average 65 Kw. 

51/^ X 111/^ inch stock — Average 57 Kw. 

TY2 X 13 inch stock — Average 69 Kw. 

Fifty horsepower motors weigh 2,300 pounds and cost $521 delivered 
(1916); 75 horsepower motors weigh 2,630 pounds and cost $730; 100 horse- 
power weigh 3.800 pounds and cost $895; and 150 horsepower motors weigh 
4,640 pounds and cost $1,150. 

FILE ROOM 

CARE OF BAND SAWS 

Band headsaws used in cutting Douglas fir logs are changed at least four 

times a day, oftener if they become dull or if accidents injure the teeth. 

The change requires about six or eight minutes. In steam-shaft driven mills, 

stopping the headsaw to change saws usually requires shutting down the en- 

75 



tire plant; but in motor driven mills, the headsaw is the only machine 
stopped at such times. The edger, trimmer, gang saws, resaws, and other 
machines continue to operate and cut up any accumulated stock. 

Few people except band sawyers and handsaw filers realize the complex- 
ity and sensitiveness of the modern band saw. It is described as "a thin 
ribbon of tempered steel with teeth cut in its edges and made to run belt 
fashion over two wheels." This simple description is correct, but it does not 
convey any idea of the difficulties experienced in making this saw run 
smoothly and produce good lumber, operating at the high speed required. 

Snaky lumber is produced when the saw wabbles in the cut The most 
frequent cause of this is improper tension. A dull saw will also heat and 
not run true. Sometimes the teeth are poorly shaped or injured and cause 
the saw to lead in or out of the cut at certain points. The saw sometimes 
wabbles because of insufficient strain, but this is seldom the case. If the 
saw is overcrowded, it will heat and run unevenly. 



TEXSIOX 

A most important element in successful band saw operation is keeping 
the correct tension (distribution of metal in the blade) in the saw to insure 
true cutting, and to keep the saw from slipping off the wheels where no 
crown is used. The idea of tensioning is to spread the metal in the center 
of the blade toward the two edges (Fig. 30) so that it is very slightly longer 
in the center than at the edges. The result is that when the saw is bent 
as it passes around the saw wheels, the center of the blade bows away from 
the face of the wheels, thus throwing the effect of the straining device upon 



6x6 



6x8 



/O ■^/■^ t/mbej- fOf- S/t>rr car 
/Ox/2 f-/mbe/- for 3 ton caj- 




SaJrsr approx* 2"/n /-? * 




76 



i_ ^ 

Fig. 35. End and side 



the edges of the saw, stiffening them, and causing them to run perfectly true. 

The tensioning must be done uniformly throughout the saw's entire 
length. That is, the blade must form from the front edge to the back edge 
an arc of constant diameter the entire length of the saw, or the edges will 
not strain uniformly and the saw will not run true. 

Tensioning is done either by hand with a hammer having a round head 
and slightly curved face, or by rolling in a special tensioning machine. In 
hammering, light blows are used so as not to crystallize the steel or injure 
the saw in other ways. 

Saws of various widths and gauges require different tension arcs to do 
their best work. The arcs which are recommended for each width and gauge 
of standard Douglas fir band saws are given in the following table: 

DIAMETER OF TENSION ARCS FOR BAND SAWS 
OF VARIOUS WIDTHS AND GAUGES 

Diameter of circles 

AN'idtli of saw, having the desired arc, | 

in. Gauge 

12 13 

13 13 

14 13 

15 13 

13 12 

14 r 12 

15 12 

16 12 

There are slight differences in saws and in operating conditions which 
often necessitate modification of these arcs to insure the best results. The 
figures given, however, represent average conditions. A safe rule is to give 
the saw all the tension it will stand and still lie flat. 



having the desired arc, 
ft. 
40 
50 
50 
55 
50 
i)U 

Oil 

66 



6xS 




/B'O'forSton ccw - 
20 'O "for 3 ton car 



^^ 



f monorail runways. 



77 



Tension gauges with the above arcs are used in testing for proper ten- 
sion. 

TWISTS ANI> LUMPS 

Twists and lumps are quickly detected by running a straight edge over 
the saw, and are removed by hammering with special hammers. When de- 
tected, they may be marked with chalk to insure their removal before the 
saw is again used. After such defects have been removed by hammering, the 
tension is again tested, since it is nearly always affected. 




Fig. 30. Tension zones in a band saw. Arrows indicate movement of metal 
when saws are hammered or rolled. 

SAW CRACKS 

Small saw cracks which are not immediately arrested will continue to 
develop and eventually run the width of the saw. A crack may be stopped 
easily by punching a small hole at its extreme end. Care is necessary to see 
that the crack does not extend beyond the point where the hole is punched. 

SWAGING THE TEETH 

Swaging saw teeth consists of spreading the tips or corners of the teeth, 
so that they are slightly wider than the thickness of the saw (Fig. 31). 
This is necessary to make the saw kerf wider than the saw, and thus pre- 
vent binding and heating in the cut. However, if the swage is unnecessarily 
wide, it weakens the teeth, causes waste in kerf, and increases the power 
consumption. As a general rule, the swaged width of the tooth after side 
dressing is about twice the thickness of the saw. 




Fig. 31. Stages in swaging. 



Band saws are swaged with lever swages, since it is almost impossible 
to swage them uniformly enough with a hand swage and mallet to insure 
true sawing. After swaging, the teeth are shaped with a lever shaper to 
insure uniformity, which is necessary to straight and smooth cutting. 

GlT3I»nNG 

When band saw teeth wear down, the gullet or throat must be ground out 
to keep the sawdust space uniform in size and the teeth of constant length. 
This process is called gumming and is usually done by an automatic machine. 

78 



The work is accomplished by a rapidly revolving emery wheel whose edge 
is curved to correspond with the curvature in the tooth gullet. The machine 
automatically draws the endless saw past the emery wheel so that each 
gullet is ground the same amount. The emery is applied for a second or so 
only at a time, so that the metal will not be burned or made brittle. Burn- 
ing or sharp notches in the gullet are usually the cause of saw cracks. 

BRAZING 

When a band saw is badly cracked or broken, or when a tooth breaks off 
back in the throat, a section of the saw is removed and splicing and brazing 
are necessary. The two ends to be brazed are bevelled about one inch on 
the surfaces to come in contact when the braze is made. The actual opera- 
tion is accomplished by the application of silver solder, powdered borax, and 
heat to the bevelled ends which are held tightly together in a clamp. A 
braze properly made is said to be stronger and tougher than the rest of the 
saw. 

ORDERING BAND SAWS 

The following information is supplied the saw dealer in ordering band 
saws: 1. Right or left hand mill. 2. Amount of crown on saw wheels 
(if any). 3. Length of saw in feet. 4. Gauge or thickness of saw. 5. 
Width of saw in inches. 6. Distance between teeth points. 7. Kind of 
wood or woods to be cut. 

Some saw filers prefer to buy "saw blanks" and cut their own teeth. 
They also put in the original tension. In ordering band saw blanks, the 
width, gauge, and length are the only specifications necessary. 

CARE OF CIRCULAR SAWS 

Practically all circular headsaws in the Douglas fir region are of the in- 
serted tooth type. This greatly reduces the work of the filer, since, except 
for keeping the saw tensioned and the dull teeth "pointed up," the saws re- 
quire very little attention. They require no swaging or gumming. 

The lower saw is usually changed four times a day, and the upper saw 
in double cutting mills once or twice a week, depending upon the size of the 
logs and the use the saw gets. From 500 to 1,000 teeth per month are re- 
quired for the lower saw and from 225 to 400 for the upper saw. 

HAMHIERING AND TENSIONING 

To run true and make good lumber, circular saws, like band saws, must 
have their metal properly distributed. The distribution of the metal varies 
with the speed at which the saw is run. Slow running saws are made thicker 
in the body (the area midway between the rim and the center) than high 
speed saws. Hammering the body of the saw (Fig. 18) with a round headed 
hammer having a slightly curved face will spread the metal toward the rim 
and center, and open up the saw, so that it will run true at a given speed. 
After saws have run a while they become bent or dished, and the rim is ex- 
panded by the constant heat from friction, so that the body must again be 
opened up as described above. This accounts for the periodical hammering 
necessary. To make sure that the body of the saw is opened uniformly all 
the way around, it is tested with the straight edge. When a circular saw is 
in proper tension, the body falls away from the straight edge in an arc of 
uniform curvature at all points. 

If a saw runs absolutely true at the rim out of the cut, it is in proper 
tension; and if it then wabbles in the cut, the trouble is with the arbor, the 
track, the alignment, the teeth, or something else, but not with the saw ten- 
sion. 

Lumps may be detected easily and quickly with the straight edge, and are 
marked with chalk to assist in locating them during the hammering process. 
They are hammered out with a round faced hammer, and a tension test 
made afterwards. 

79 



ORDERING CIRCULAR SAWS 

The following specifications are used in ordering circular saws: 

1. Diameter of saw in inches. 

2. Right or left hand mill. 

3. Gauge of saw at center (and at rim if different). 

4. Number of teeth or exact tooth space. 

5. Style of teeth, and whether solid or inserted. 

6. Diameter of arbor hole, also diameter, number, and distance from 
center to center of pin holes. 

7. Number of revolutions at which the saw is to be operated. 

8. Kind of wood to be cut. 

FILE ROOM EQUIPMENT 

Where band saws are used, considerable file room equipment is needed. 
The file room equipment is so small in mills having no band saws that its 
cost is on unimportant item. The following equipment is typical where a 
band head saw, a band resaw, and a gang saw are used. 

Weight, Cost 

pounds, (1916) 

16 inch band saw sharpener •. 1,800 $275 

10 Inch band saw sharpener 1,350 225 

Gang- saw sharpener 1,100 185 

Circular saw sharpener 1,600 250 

Saw stretcher 1,350 275 

Automatic scarfing: machine 500 120 

Brazing- table 900 135 

Open down filing clamps 500 85 

Band saw shears 850 120 

Forge 50 

Miscellaneous 100 

In band mills the total cost of file room equipment varies with size of the 
plant and also with the type of equipment, but fair averages are as follows: 

COST OF FILE ROODI EQUIPMENT (1916) 

Size of mill. Cost of file room equipment, 

ft. per 10 hr. cut $ 

60,000 to 75,000 1,500 

100,000 2,000 

150,000 2,500 

200,000 3,000 

250,000 3,600 

300,000 4,000 

These costs cover installation (about 5 per cent) but do not include 
motors. 

COSTS OF FILES AND EMERIES 

The costs for files and emeries varies from one-half to one cent for each 
one thousand feet of lumber produced in the sawmill, depending upon the 
character, number, and kind of saws. 

COST OF FILING 

The labor cost is from 7 to 13 cents per thousand board feet of cut, depend 
ing upon the kind of filers required and the capacity of the plant. The high 
figure is for small band mills. The average for the region is close to 9 
cents per thousand board feet. 

POWER FOR FILE ROOM 

Small 7.5 to 15 h. p., 1,800 R. p. m. motors furnish ample power for file 
room equipment. Usually the shafting is arranged so that one motor will 
drive all of the equipment, although independent drive for the various ma- 
chines is sometimes advisable. 

FILE ROOM MOTOR COSTS (1916) 
Power, Weight, Cost delivered, 

h. p. lbs. $ 

7.5 600 194.00 

10 750 245.00 

15 880 285.00 

Motors complete with base, pulley, and starting compensator. 

80 



ESTIHIATEU 


INITIAL SAW 


Size of mill 




(10 hr. cut) 


High, 


bd. ft. 


% 


60,000 


1,200 


75,000 


1,500 


100,000 


2,000 


150,000 


.3,000 


250,000 


3,300 


300,000 


5,000 



COST OF SAWS, BELTS, AND LUBRICANTS 

SAWS 

The initial cost of saws for Douglas fir mills varies according to the size 
of plant and whether the head saw and resaws are band or circular. Typi- 
cal investments for plants of representative sizes are shown below: 

COSTS FOR FIR MILLS (1916) 

Medium, Low, 

$ $ 

1,000 800 

1,200 900 

1,800 1,500 

2,500 2,200 

3,000 2,500 

3,500 3,200 

These costs include rip and trimmer saws in the planing mill, drag saws 

on the pond, and the like. 

fSAW KEPLACEMLENT COSTS 

The replacement costs, exclusive of labor, for saws and saw teeth for 
each thousand board feet of lumber cut are from 5 to 10 cents. The average 
is close to 6 cents (1913) for the region as a whole. The difference between 
the costs at band and circular mills is not more than a cent or so per thou- 
sand in favor of circular mills. The high figures are for the costs at plants 
where the saws are rapidly dulled or frequently broken, as where logs are 
"driven" to the mill, thus picking up stones and other objects which are hard 
on the saws. 

BELTS 

Many mills in the fir region use a variety of belting, such as leather, 
lubber, and canvas; others use leather throughout. For this reason it is 
difficult to present data on the investment in belts for mills of different sizes. 
The following estimates, however, will serve as a guide for calculating initial _ 
belt investments. 

INITIAL COST OF SAWMILL BELTS (1910) 

(Mixed leather, rubber, and cotton) 
Size of mill 

1 10 hr. cut) Shaft driven. Motor driven, 

bd. ft. $ ■ $ 

60,000 1,400 800 

75,000 1,700 900 

100,000 2,300 1,200 

150,000 2,900 1,500 

250,000 3,500 1,800 

300,000 4,000 2,000 

INITIAL COST OF PLANING MILL BELTS (1916) 

Size of planing' mill 

(10 hr. cut). Shaft-driven, Motor-driven, 

bd. ft. $ $ 

30,000 600 300 

50,000 1,000 500 

100,000 1,600 800 

These figures are probably fair averages and should be modified to meet 
any unusual conditions of installation. They do not include conveyor belt- 
ing. 

BELT REPLACEMENT COSTS 

The belt replacement costs are usually calculated in terms of lumber cut. 
They are less for electric than steam plants and less in large than in small 
mills. At all of the small plants and most of the others the belt repairing 
is done by the millwright and the labor costs are charged in with his usual 
work, so that belt replacement cost "is commonly figured as simply the cost 
of the belts. While this is not good practice from an accounting standpoint, 
it makes the cost figures comparable at all plants and is therefore used here. 
It is estimated that one man can be kept constantly busy on belts alone at 
a mill cutting 200,000 feet in 10 hours. The belt replacement cost (1913- 
1915) per 1,000 feet is about as follows: 

81 



Shaft-driven sawmills $0.05 per 1,000 feet cut 

Motor-driven sawmills 03 per 1,000 feet cut 

Shaft-driven planing mills 04 per 1,000 feet machined 

Motor-driven planing mills 02 per 1,000 feet machined 

Belts costs depend on the character of the belt, i. e., whether it is leather, 

rubber, or canvas. The tabulation below gives the cost of belts of various' 

sizes and kinds. 

tOST OF VARIOUS BELTINGS <1016) 
(Price per foot) 

AVicUli in Leather, Rubber, Canvas, " 

'"■ 1 ply 4 ply 6 ply 6 ply 

4 $ .53 $0.25 $0.30 $0.19 

5 .66 .30 .46 .23 

6 .79 .36 .54 .27 

7 .92 .42 .62 .31 

8 1.06 .48 .72 .36 

9 1.19 .53 .80 .40 

10 1.32 .60 .89 .45 

11 1.40 .66 .98 .49 

12 1.58 .72 1.07 .54 
14 1.85 .84 1.27 .70 
16 2.11 .98 1.47 .79 
18 2.38 1.11 1.66 .89 
24 3.17 1.54 2.31 1.18 
30 3.96 2.00 3.00 1.62 
36 4.75 2.46 3.69 1.99 
42 5.54 2.92 4.39 2.45 
48 6.34 3.36 5.08 2.80 
54 7.13 3.85 5.77 

60 7.92 4.32 6.47 

68 9.79 4.80 7.17 

72 10.37 5.30 7.87 

Note: To obtain 2 ply leather costs double above figures. 
6 ply rubber = 2 ply leather 
4 ply rubber = 1 ply leather 
6 ply canvas = 1 ply leather 

LUBRICANTS 

The labor cost for oiling in the sawmill alone amounts to from 2 to 4 
cents for each one thousand board feet cut. The average cost (1913-1915) 
for work of this class is close to 3 cents. The planing mill machines and 
equipment are usually oiled by the men or the foreman. 

The total cost of oils and grease per thousand board feet is about as 
follows: 

COST OF OILS AND GREASE 

High, Medium, Low, 
Use ? $ $ 

Sawmill » 

Power plant [ per 1.000 feet cut 05 .03 .02 

Machine shop > 

Planing- mill, per 1,000 feet dressed 03 .02 .01 

Some of the larger plants have elaborate oil storage and measuring equip- 
ment similar to that in use in public garages. This reduces the fire risk 
and gives an easy check on the quantity of the various kinds of oils used. 
The latter is important where detailed oil costs are kept. The equipment 
cost from $500 to $800 installed (1916) depending upon the number of oils 
provided for. 

MISCELLANEOUS SUPPLIES 
The expense for miscellaneous supplies, other than belts, saws, saw teeth, 
and lubricants, which are discussed elsewhere, usually amounts to from 3 to 
10 cents (1913) per thousand board feet of lumber cut. These miscellaneous 
supplies include babbitt, gaskets, light bulbs, and similar materials. 

COST OF INSTALLING MILL EQUIPMENT 

The cost of installing sawmill machines and equipment is usually esti- 
mated as a percentage of the total delivered cost. The rate used ranges 
from 10 to 15 per cent, depending upon the size of the mill and the wages 
millwrights are receiving at the time the work is contemplated. Some con- 
tractors will undertake the work on a basis of a cent to a cent and a half 
per pound, (1913) on the total weight of the equipment installed. 

82 



COST OF SAWING 

LABOR 

The total labor cost of sawing Douglas fir (including all operations from 
the log deck to the sorting table) varies from 50 to 90 cents per thousand 
board feet of lumber cut. This cost includes the wages of the mill foreman 
but excludes filing and oiling costs and all overhead, power, and other costs 
chargeable to the operation as a whole and not specifically to the mill. The 
average labor cost for the region for sawing is probably about 65 cents per 
thousand board feet. The total cost varies with the character of the product 
(whether largely 1 inch and 2 inch lumber or principally timbers and ties 
are produced) and whether or not the mill is equipped and powered to obtain 
the maximum output from a given labor cost. 

REPAIRS 

The cost of keeping Douglas fir sawmills in repair varies from 2 to 3 
cents per thousand board feet in very new plants with efficient equipment 
to 60 or 75 cents in old plants which are worn out and have inefficient equip- 
ment. The repairs for the region as a whole are normally from 25 to 35 
cents (1913) per thousand feet. These costs include both labor and material 
used in repairs. 



83 



MOVING LUMBER WITHIN THE PLANT 

Douglas fir mills use many methods and devices for moving lumber from 
one department to another, too many in fact to permit a complete discussion 
of each. An attempt is made, however, to give data on methods and costs 
of the more important schemes. General important types of equipment, 
such as overhead and locomotive cranes and monorails, though they have 
other functions than transportation, are included in this chapter in order that 
the discussion of methods of utilizing them and of investment costs may 
be simplified. 

SMALL TRUCKS 

There are three styles of lumber trucks in general use in the fir region. 
The two wheel types are the most common because they are the cheapest. 
The standard two wheel trucks cost (1916) from $15 to $18 each, and the 
four wheel trucks from $30 to $35. The four wheel type is more efficient 
and is usually given preference when funds will permit. When two wheel 
trucks are used much lumber is broken or damaged (by dragging), and the 
life of the planking or tramways and docks is greatly reduced. The loads 
vary in size from 1,000 to 2,000 board feet, depending on the length of the 
stock. In practice there is no material difference in the capacity of the two 
kinds, but the four wheel type requires less care in loading and is more rap- 
idly hitched to teams or tractors, since the stakes eliminate the necessity of 
long cumbersome chains to hold the load in transit. 

WAGONS AND AUTO TRUCKS 

When small trucks like those just described are not used, the material 
may be taken to the yard on specially constructed wagons or auto trucks. 
The lumber at the sorting chains is placed on stationary horses designed to 
permit backing the vehicle under the lumber units so that it is automatically 
loaded. The lumber is then taken to its destination and either rolled upon 
saw horses or dropped upon the tram to await piling. This system does 
away with the investment in a large numl)er of trucks, and is said to make 
possible more rapid movement of the loads from one point to another. Autos 
are preferable to horse drawn wagons. They are faster, the motive power is 
available for loading and unloading, and there is less expense during periods 
of shut down. 

TRACTORS 

Formerly, the lumber trucks were drawn exclusively by horses, but elec- 
tric and gasoline tractors (Fig. 32) have now come into extensive use. The 
tractor has several advantages over horses, chief of which that the greater 
speed of the tractor enables one tractor and driver to do the work of from 
three to six teamsters and horses; that the life of planking on docks and 
tramways is about doubled by the elimination of the damage don» by the 
sharp calks in the horses' shoes; that the tractors may be backed into tight 
places, whereas horses, with the usual equipment are able to move the load 
forward only. 



Fig. 32. (iasoline tractor and method formerly employed. 

84 



There are several types of electric tractors, all equipped with hard rubber 
tires and operated by means of storage batteries. They are said to have 
several advantages over gasoline tractors, chief of which are that there is 
no expense for gasoline and cylinder oil, the fire hazard is smaller, and the 
mechanism simple. Their disadvantages are reduction in power through ex- 
haustion and aging of the batteries and expense for new batteries. The cost, 
weight, etc. of three representative kinds of electric tractors are as follows: 

COST OP ELECTRIC TRACTORS 

Item I II III 

Initial cost ?2,000-$3,000 $2,500-$3,000 Jlr600-$2,600 

Weight (lbs.) 4,500- 5,000 3,500- 4,500 1,900- 3,800 

Size of tires 4/22x4% in. 1/36x5 in. 4/20x3% in. 

Cost of tires $96 $96 fSO 

(per set)* 
Initial cost of 
charging: equipment: 

Direct current .... $100-$175 $75 

Alternating- current i300-$375 $275 

Annual cost of batteries ?300-$325 $280-$365 

•Tires cost about one cent per mile. 

Several kinds of gasoline tractors are now being successfully used. Most 
of them are modifications of inexpensive automobiles. They are said to be 
faster than the electric machines and are probably more powerful than most 
of them. 

Gasoline tractors cost from $800 to $1,000 each (1916). They consume 
from six to ten gallons of gasoline and about a quart of oil per day. The 
solid rubber tires cost about $85 a set and are good for from 10,000 to 15,000 
miles. A tractor will displace from three to six horses and teamsters, de- 
pending upon the distances to be covered. The later designs are snecially 
geared to give better variations of speed and thus meet working conditions 
better. 

SURFACE CARRIERS 

There are machines which are designed to carry the lumber instead of 
hauling it. One type is shown in Fig. 33; the other is an ordinary auto 
truck equipped with a roller bed for loading and unloading the units. These 
carriers can be operated at the speeds used by industrial trucks in other com- 
mercial work and are faster than tractors, which cannot proceed faster than 
a safe Speed for the two wheel trucks. 




Fig. 33. Lumber carrier. 
86 



The type of carrier shown in Ihe figure is made especially for carrying 
lumber prepared in units and suspended under the machine. It is designed to 
operate with either gasoline motor or electric batteries. The lumber units 
are prepared on bolsters like those used for monorails (Fig. 29). The 
bolsters rest on small blocks of wood a few inches high to enable the opera- 
tive to engage the grapple hooks. The machine is driven over the unit, 
quickly grasps and raises the load a few inches off the ground, and then 
conveys it rapidly to its destination. This machine will carry loads 4% feet 
high, 31/^ feet wide, and any length. The load is moved on rubber tires and 
the wear on planking is reduced to a minimum, but means are necessary at 
the planing mill to raise the loads to a working level. 

TRAMWAYS AND PLATFORMS 

Typical tramway construction is shown in Fig. 34 except that the plank- 
ing ordinarily runs across the direction of traffic Instead of with it as shown. 
Running it in the direction of traffic reduces the cost of maintenance, since 
only the worn boards in the center must be replaced. In addition it elim- 
inates most of the vibration caused when loads are moved rapidly over a 
cross-planked tram. The cost of constructing 20 foot and 24 foot standard 
trams is shown in detail below. 

COST OP TItAMWAY.S 

[Material and cost (1916) for each 20-foot bent, lumber at $10 per 1.000] 

^4~tu*»t 'I'rsiiii^vjiy 

Caps: 1 PC. 6 x 12-24 144 bd. ft. $ 1.44 

Stringers: 2 pes. 12 x 12-20 480 bd. ft. 4.80 

1 PC 10 X 12-20 200 bd. ft. 2 00 

Joists: 10 pes. 4 X 12-24 960 hd. ft. 9 60 

Planking-: 24 pes. 4 x 12-20 1,920 bd. ft. 19.20 



Total for 20 linear feet 3,704 bd. ft. $37.04 

Per linear foot 185 bd. ft. 1.85 

3 20-ft. piles (Si $2.70 installed ($8.10), per linear foot 40 

Labor and hardware @ $8.00 per 1,000 ft. ($29.63) per linear foot 1.48 



Total per linear foot $3.75 

iJO-foot Tr;iiii\v;i>- 

Caps: 1 PC. 6 x 12-20 120 bd. ft. $ 1.20 

Stringers: 2 pes. 12 x 12-20, 10 x 12-20... 680 bd. ft. 6.80 

Joists: 10 pes. 4 x 12-20 800 bd. ft. 8.00 

Planking: 24 pes. 3 x 12-20 1,440 bd. ft. 14.40 



Total for 20 linear feet 3,040 bd. ft. $30.40 

Per linear foot 152 bd. ft. 1.52 

Piles ($8.10), per linear foot 40 

Hardware and labor ($24.20), per linear foot 1.21 



Total per linear foot $3.13 

Wood block paving is coming into considerable use as a surface for tram- 
v»'ays in the yards and on the docks of Douglas fir mills. Untreated green 
blocks are used, and their tops are flushed with hot tar or creosote after the 
pavement is completed. 

The blocks can be made of low grade and short length material ordinarily 
wasted, and they present a surface which will stand many times the wear 
of the ordinary planking. In fact, it is very probable so long as present 
methods of laying are used that decay will cause replacement sooner than 
mechanical wear. If creosoted planking and creosoted blocks were used, the 
trams would last the life of the mill and need little or no repairing. 

From data obtained at various plants, the cost of replacing the planking 
on trams and platforms where horses are used appears to be on the average 
from 8 to 12 cents per thousand feet of lumber transported to each depart- 
ment. Under average plant conditions this amounts to about 10 cents per 
thousand transported, or close to 18 or 20 cents per thousand cut. These 
costs are about equally divided between luP'ber and labor. 

86 



Where tractors are used instead of horses, the above costs are cut about 
in half. 

The cost of moving lumber within the plant by means of trucks and sur- 
face carriers ranges from three to twenty cents per thousand feet of stock 
moved from one department to another. The average cost (1913) where 
horses and trucks are used is close to 10 cents for each thousand feet moved. 




|^^'l^'5TlflH6l/^ 



Fig. 34. Method of piling dimension lumber and of constructing tramway. 
Movable foundation timbers to accommodate lumber of different lengths. 

MONORAIL CONVEYING AND PILING SYSTEMS 

There are several electric monorail installations at Douglas fir mills for 
transporting the lumber about the plant and handling it in the yard, sheds, 
and planing mills. If properly used in connection with large operations, they 
are undoubtedly much cheaper than ordinary methods. The equipment and 
method of installation are shown in Figs. 29, 35' and 36-. The figure shows the 
usual practice of running the monorail along either side of the sorting chains. 
It also shows the monorail carrier on a transfer crane, which is used where 
there is more than one sorting table and at other places requiring right angle 
movement of the carrier to enter the various tracks. This same type of 
crane transfer can be used along the planing mill in front of sheds or at the 
end of runways leading into the monorail tracks in the seasoning yard. 
Sheds may be constructed over the monorail for storing dry stock (rough or 
dressed) or for protecting the material in the yard from the weather during 
the air drying process. 

The lumber is placed in square piles, or units, as they are called, con- 
taining from 1,500 to 2,000 (3 ton carrier) or from 2,000 to 3,000 (5 ton car- 
rier) board feet each. The piles are made from Zy^ to 5 feet wide and from 
30 to 50 inches high when piled solid. Each unit is centered directly under 
the monorail track, so that it will balance when picked up by the carrier. 
Each unit rests on two 4x4 inch (3 ton) or 5 x 5 inch (5 ton) bolsters, 



'On pages 76 and 7 7. 
= On pages 92 and 39. 



87 



which are spaced on 4 to 6 foot centers and rest on skids in such a way 
that each of their ends may be easily engaged by the grapple hooks. These 
bolsters are a permanent part of the unit until it is dismembered. They 
separate the units as they are placed one upon the other in the yard or shed. 
Where the lumber is to go to the yard for air seasoning it is usually "stuck" 
at the sorting chains with 1 inch by 2-4 inch by 4 foot stickers. 

The hoists or carriers are ordinarily built in sizes of either three or five 
ton capacity, although larger sizes can be obtained. Each is equipped with 
two motors, one for hoisting and lowering, and the other for travel. The 
vehicle runs on a special 15 inch I — beam track and is suspended by three 
four-wheel trucks. The raising and lowering cables are suspended from one 
(two point suspension) or two (four point suspension) drums. The two 
drum type is superior, since the control is more positive at all times and 
there is no teetering to delay the operative in engaging the grapple hooks. 

The frame carrying the grapple hooks is equipped with a table to permit 
turning the load at right angles before running along narrow runways and 
for storing at right angles to the track. 

The amount of material which can be stored beneath each foot of mono- 
rail track depends upon the height of the superstructure, the length of the 
stock, and whether it is piled solid or stuck. Usually 2,700 feet of solid 
stock and from 1.500 to 2,000 feet of "stuck" stock can be stored to each 
linear foot of track. 

The operative sits in the cage and controls the entire operation of this 
machine by means of easily reached levers. Sometimes he is given a helper 
to expedite engaging the units and looking after the bolsters, but this is 
seldom necessary. 

Some of the advantages claimed for the monorail are that it does away 
with tramways, horses, tractors, and trucks, or buggies; that it handles and 
transports lumber cheaply and speedily; that it permits getting at the bottom 
of piles at little cost and thus increases the savings on freight by making 
possible the shipment of the dryest lumber at all times; and that where the 
mill generates its own electrical power, the outlay is small compared to the 
expense for power for other handling and transportation devices. 

Following is a summary of the important parts of monorail equipment 
and their cost. 

COST OF MONORAIL EQUIPMENT (1916) 

3-ton 5-ton 

Item equipment equipment 

Initial cost delivered $3,200 $3,500 

Weight in pounds 13,520 14,000 

Metal for monorail runway (per linear foot) . . $2.50 $2.50 

Weight of above (per linear foot, in pounds).. 35 55 

Switches (complete) $300 $300 

Weight of switches (in pounds) 3,500 3,500 

Transfer crane $2,750 $2,740 

Weight of transfer crane (in pounds) 24.000 24,000 

Metal for crane runway (per linear foot) $1.75 $1.75 

Weight of above (per linear foot in pounds). 47 47 

A list of the material for the wooden portion of the single track runways 

is shown below. The labor and hardware for installing these wooden frames 

is (1916) about $7.50 per thousand board feet. 

TIMBERS FOR A 3-TON MONORAIL RUNWAY 
[20 Feet Between Bents] 

bd. ft. 
2 pes. 10x10-30 500 

1 PC. 10x12-12 120 

2 pes. (Pn.) 6x10-6 60 

Total for one bent 680 

Per linear foot 34.0 

8 pes. 3x8-24 384 

4 pes. 3x8-20 160 

Side braces for every 120 ft 544 

Per linear foot 4.5 

2 pes. 6x8-20 top timbers 160 

Per linear foot 8.0 

Total per linear foot 46.5 

88 



TIMBBRS FOR A 5-TON MONORAIL, RUNWAY 

[18 Feet Between Bents] 

bd. ft. 
2 pes. 10x10-30 500 

1 PC. 10x12-12 120 

2 pes. 6x10-6 60 

Total for one bent 680 

Per linear foot 37.7 

8 pes. 3x8-24 384 

4 pes. 3x8-20 160 

Side braees for every 108 ft 544 

Per linear foot 5.0 

2 pes. 6x8-18 144 

Per linear foot 8.0 

Total per linear foot 50.7 

For 3-ton equipment the hoisting speed is 40 feet per minute loaded and 
65 feet empty, and the lowering speed is 80 feet per minute loaded and 65 
feet empty. For 5-ton equipment the hoisting speed is 25 feet per minute 
loaded and 40 feet empty, and the lowering speed is 50 feet per minute 
loaded and 40 feet empty. 

The capacity of monorail carriers depends on their size, the length of 
haul, and the skill of the operator — also upon the number of switches, curves, 
and other obstacles that retard the speed. Ordinarily, a single carrier can 
handle from 100,000 to 125,000 board feet daily. At a plant cutting about 
200,000 in 10 hours, a single carrier is handling the entire output from a 
three chain sorter to the kilns and to the planing mill, in addition to stack- 
ing all rough kilned stock in a single track dry shed and loading trucks for 
the seasoning yard. At another plant cutting 125,000 feet per day, all No. 1 
Common yard stock is carried to the yard, stacked, and delivered to the 
cars by a single carrier. 



MONORAIL LUMBER HANDLING COSTS 

The costs of handling lumber by means of a monorail are tabulated below. 
The figures are derived from costs at five plants. 

COSTS OF HANDLING LUMBER BY MONORAIL. 

Handling^ cost 

Int. and 
Labor trans- dep. trans- 
Amount handled Sticking,' portation,- portation. 
Month, In and out, per 1,000 per 1,000 per 1,000 Total 

1914 board feet bd. ft. bd. ft. bd. ft. transportation 

April 1,950,000 $0,242 $0,048 $0,035 $0,083 

May 2,159,000 .219 .044 .023 .067 

June 1,907,000 .248 .049 .033 .081 

July 2,256,000 .209 .042 .028 .070 

' Labor for sticking; 7 men on the sorting cliains at $2.50 per day; not Including 
sraders or tallymen. 

- Labor transportation; one operator for trolley at $3.50 per daj'. 

LUMBER COMPANY'S COSTS BASED ON FIVE MONTHS' AVERAGE 

Amount handled Cost at sorter, Total 

per 1,000 Men and Daily Per 1,000 Monorail Per 1,000 

board feet daily wage cost bd. ft. cost bd. ft. 

65,000 5 men @ $2.25 $11.25 $0.1725 $0,065 $0.2375 

80,000 7 men @ $2.25 15.75 .1975 .05 .2475 

100,000 9 men @ $2.25 20.25 .2025 .04 .2425 

Note. Tallymen or graders not included in above. Monorail operator 

paid $3.25 to $3.50 per day. 

10 hours 

Month, Total Total average Monorail Total Cost 

1915 cut hours total to yard cost per 1,000 

August 2,293,113 222 103,293 1,185 M $78.00 $0,065 

September .. 2,398,389 219y2 109,266 1,391 M 81.25 .058 

August sorting- cost, $0,348; September sorting cost, $0,331. 

Note. Entire cost of operation, monorail charged against lumber to 
yard. No credit for lumber returned. 



ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS 

Locomotives and cars have so far been little used at Douglas fir mills. 
This is probably because only very few of the fir mills have large seanson- 
ing yards with sufficient trackage. The increasing tendency toward large 
seansoning yards indicates that locomotives may be more extensively used 
as time goes on. 

This type of hauling equipment (Fig. 37) eliminates the expensive main- 
tenance of planking and makes possible greater speed and fewer operatives; 




Fig. 37. Miniature electric locomotive for lumber hauling (cab removed). 



but the system is not elastic. The cars cannot be operated except where 
tracks are laid, and even double tracks with numerous switches do not give 
the flexibility of the two wheel trucks, since considerable switching is neces- 
sary to get around loaded cars awaiting the pilers. 

90 



The initial cost of electric locomotives (6-ton size) delivered is from 
$3,200 to 15,000 (1916). The weight is from 3,600 to 3,800 pounds, and the 
draw-bar pull from 2,400 to 3.500 pounds. The initial cost of the battery is 
from $1,625-$2,100 (1916). 

A mill operator using this equipment states that the cars cost $32 each 
(1916) and that he is using 600 of them. His output is 100,000,000 feet a 
j'ear. He also states that the track can be installed complete (gauge 30 
inch— ties 8 inches by 8 inches by 4 feet), except the steel and grading, for 
about $500 per mile. The steel costs from $40 to $50 per ton. 

OVERHEAD CRANES 

Overhead electric traveling cranes are coming into use at Douglas fir 
mills, particularly for handling and loading heavy planks, ties, and timbers. 
These machines are also used to handle units at planer storage rolls and at 
other such points as the arrangement and operating conditions permit. They 
are ordinarily made in 3 and 5 ton sizes and sometimes larger, and for any 
reasonable span. 

They are operated to best advantage with a crew of three men, although 
sometimes two are sufficient. The movements of the crane are controlled 
by the operative in the cage. He is assisted by a hooktender, who arranges 
the slings or tongs and engages the load or loosens it. Where two assistants 
are employed, one stays at the point where the lumber is picked up so as to 
have the sling in readiness when the crane returns, and the other remains at 
the point where the loads are being deposited. This saves time and is not 
so hard on the hook tender, since he does not have to chase the crane. 

From close observation of one of these machines at work, the writer be- 
lieves that a small mill laid out in general according to Fig. 38' could handle 
almost its entire output with a traveling crane much more cheaply than by 
present methods. The crane can be equipped with grapple hooks and turn- 
table similar to the monorail carrier, so that the cage operator can engage 
and deposit the load without assistance, and turn it at any angle. 

The principal advantages claimed for overhead cranes are: that they 
have a quick and positive movement in three directions (as against two for 
the monorail); that they can be used for loading timbers and lumber in 
addition to storing and conveying; and that they are like the monorail in 
cheapness of operation. 

The initial factory cost of a 3 ton overhead crane (76 foot span) with 
turntable grapples and two drums is $5,500, (1916) and the weight is 53,000 
pounds. The same crane without turntable, grapples, and drum weighs 
40,000 pounds and costs $4,500. For a 5 ton crane the cost is $6,000, and the 
weight 60,000 pounds with the equipment mentioned; without this equipment 
the cost is $5,000, and the weight 45,000 pounds. For both sizes of cranes 
the runway metal weighs 47 pounds and costs $1.75 per linear foot. 

For 3 ton and 5 ton cranes the speed along runways is 300 feet per min- 
ute loaded and 400 feet empty, across the bridge it is 150 feet and 200 feet, 
respectively, in hoisting it is 35 feet and 50 feet, and in lowering 70 feet and 
50 feet. These speeds may be increased if desired. 

The cost of the wooden structure and installation of a typical overhead 
crane is given on the next two pages. These data were compiled by E. E. 
Martin, Eugene, Oregon, and contain unit figures needed in estimates for 

such work. 

». •.. 

1 On pages 108 and 109. 

91 



UNIT COSTS OP AN OVBRHE^AD CRANE (1916) 

Engineering and supervision (g) 1.35 per cent of total cost $ 118 70 
Substructure: 

130 piles @ f 0.967 each $ 125 70 

12,192 ft. of caps @ $9.00 per 1,000 109,73 

Expense (grease, lines, ropes, etc.) @ $0,633 

per piling 82.27 

144 drift bolts @ $0.07 each 10.08 

Labor (driving and capping) @ $3.05 396.57 724.35 

Concrete piers (33 — 16x16-40-40x40; (5 — 16x28-40x40x52: 

Forms (38) 

3,196 ft. of lumber @ $5.00 15.98 

Nails 3.22 

Labor (g) $0.84 per form 31.91 51.11 

Concrete: 

193 sacks of cement @ $0.71 each 136.92 

20 cubic yards sand (5) $1.75 35.00 

67 cubic yards gravel (ai $1.00 67.00 

Expense @ $0,019 per cubic yard .84 

Labor (Excavation and pouring (g) $5,238 per 

cu. yd.) 235.72 475.48 

Bracing substructure: 

2,688 ft. of lumber @ $9.00 per 1,000 board ft. 24.19 

Labor @ $2,846 per 1,000 board feet 7.65 3184 



« 

I 




Fig. 36. End elevation o 



Superstructure: 

79,802 ft. of lumber @ $9.00 per 1,000 board 

feet 718.22 

Framing- @ 13.207 per 1,000 board feet 255.94 

Raising @ $3,493 per 1,000 board feet ' 278.72 

Incidentals @ $0.0.31 per 1,000 board feet . . . 2.50 
Iron (bolts, spikes, drifts, etc.) (fii $5,832 per 

1,000 board feet 465.38 1.720.76 

Dock (exclusive of foundation): 

62,101 ft. of lumber @ $6,427 per 1,000 feet . 399.11 

Labor @ $3,122 per 1,000 feet 193.86 

Iron @ $0,556 per 1,000 feet 34.54 627.51 

Crane proper: 

Contract price $3,000.00 

Freight 1,152.18 

Assembling @ 5.94 per cent of contract .... 178.12 

Expense @ 0.46 per cent of contract 13.84 $4,344.14 

Electrical installation: 

Supplies 188.38 

Labor 23.69 212.07 

Painting (400 squares): 

Material @ $0,477 per square 190.97 

Labor @ $0.23 per square 91.88 282.85 

Rails 222.85 222.85 

Total cost of work $8,811.66 

Less the cost of dock 868.96 

Cost of crane and structure proper $7,942.70 




I 




ig table and monorail. 



93 



PERCENTAGE COSTS OF OVERHEAD CRANE 

AND DOCK UNDER IT (1916) 

Timber Crane ($7,942.70) 

. Cost Pel <ont 

Engineering- and supervision $ 118.70 1 48 

Substructure: 

Piling- $ 83.80 1.057 

Caps 73.15 .922 

Expense 54.85 .692 

Drift bolts 6.72 .086 

Labor 264.38 3.329 482.90 6.08 

Concrete piers: 
Forms: 

Lumber 15.98 .202 

Nails 3.22 .041 

Labor 31.91 .403 51.11 .61 

Concrete: 

Cement 136.92 1.724 

Sand 35.00 .442 

Gravel 67.00 .845 

Expense .84 .002 

Labor 235.72 2.969 475.48 5.99 

Bracing" substructure: 

Lumber 24.19 .305 

Labor 7.65 .097 31.84 .50 

Superstructure: 

Lumber 718.22 9.043 

Framing 255.94 3.223 

Raising 278.72 3.510 

Incidentals 2.50 .032 

Iron 465.38 5.860 1,720.76 21.66 

Crane machinery: 

Contract 3,000.00 37.772 

Freight 1,152.18 14.506 

Labor assembling 178,12 2.244 

Expense assembling 13.84 .174 4,344.14 54.70 

Electrical installation: 

Supplies 188.38 2.372 

Labor 23.69 .298 212.07 2.67 

Painting: 

Material $ 190.97 2.405 

Labor 91.88 1.156 282.85 3.56 

Rails: 

Material 222.85 2.806 222.85 2.81 

Duck (.$.S<;S.»0) 

Substructure: 

Piling 41.90 4.823 

Caps 36.58 4.211 

Expense 27.42 3.156 

Drift bolts 3.36 .386 

Labor 132.19 15.212 241.45 27.78 

Superstructure: 

Lumber 399.11 45.929 

Labor 193.86 22.308 

Iron 34.54 3.975 627.50 72.22 



CAPACITY OF OVERHEAD CRANES 

The capacity of overhead cranes is not well established because there are 
not enough in use yet to obtain reliable averages and each has such a pecul- 
iar kind of work that the capacities are not comparable. As an example of 
what may be expected under extremely favorable conditions in regard to 
size and accessibility of timbers, 12-16 M. ft. B. M., a car of timbers was 
loaded with the crane shown in the frontispiece in exactly 52 minutes by a 
crew of three men, at a labor cost of about two cents per thousand. The 
crane had not been in operation a month. 

94 



LOCOMOTIVE CRANES 

Locomotive cranes (Fig. 39) are used at some of the cai'go mills for con- 
veying lumber from the mill to the dock and handling it there. They are 
also used for conveying lumber to the yard and lifting the units upon piles 
for loading lumber and timbers upon flat cars, and for other handling work; 
and they serve for special work, such as dredging, log handling, car moving, 
and other similar duties. 




Fig. 39. 8-wheel locomotive crane and storage car. 

The cranes are usually of the eight wheel or double truck type. A few 
of the four wheel machines are in use, but they are said to be less stable 
and slower in operation than the others because of the poor character of the 
track upon which they are usually run. The length of the boom stick usu- 
ally varies from 40 to .50 feet. The draw bar pull is from 7,500 pounds to 
10,500 pounds. 

The cranes usually have a speed of about six miles per hour. The fuel 
consumption per day is about one barrel of oil, one-third of a cord of wood, 
(cut to 16-inch lengths) or one-fifth of a ton of average Pacific Coast coal. 

The 10-ton, 4-wheel cranes cost from $9,000 to $10,000 (1916) delivered on 
the Coast, and the 8-wheel type about $1,000 more. The 20-ton size with 
eight wheels is $12,000. 

OPERATIVES AND THEIR DUTIES 

The crane is usually in charge of an engineman, who controls all its 
movements and is ordinarily assisted by a fireman. A hook tender accom- 
panies the crane to adjust the slings or other equipment used for holding 
the load. 



95 



DRY KILNS (1916) 

Practically all Douglas fir lumber manufacturing plants are equipped with 
dry kilns, with the exception of a few cargo mills, the tie cutting plants, and 
the small portable and custom mills 

Lumber is kiln dried to reduce its weight and to retard its tendency to 
check and warp when put to use. Kiln drying also dries up the pitch and 
prevents or retards its exudation through paints, enamels, and similar cover- 
ings applied to the finished product. 

TYPES OF KILNS 

There are three types of kilns in general use in the Douglas fir region; 
i. e., standard kilns relying on natural circulation, and natural draughts, 
kilns equipped with special pipes to create circulation, and blower type kilns, 
in which fans are employed to insure rapid circulation. The number in use is 
in the order mentioned. Kilns are further divided into high temperature and 
low temperature groups and into those using outside draughts and those 
using no outside air. The kilns using no outside air are being used quite 
extensively now, though not so much as their success appears to warrant. 

Douglas fir is easily dried and can be successfully seasoned without spec- 
ially equipped kilns, although their use may tend to make the operation more 
easy to control and therefore more uniform. The cost of especially equipped 
kilns is usually higher, and most of them require more expert supervision 
than those of standard construction. 

CAPACITY OF KILNS 

The volume of lumber which can be dried in a given period varies with 
so many factors that it is impossible to give definite figures for kilns of a 
given size. The following table will serve as a guide to kiln capacity where 
the length of the drying period is known. 

CAPACITIES OF KILNS PKR SQ,UARE FOOT, INSIDE MEASURE 

Board feet of 1-inch lumber dried dally 

Medium Low 

30 25 

20 16.6 

15 12.5 

12.5 10 

10 8.3 

Note. The variation" is due principally to thickness of stickers and 
similar factors affecting the quantity of lumber per square foot 

KILN BUILDINGS 

The dry kiln buildings ordinarily consist of a single chamber or battery 
of chambers 10 or 20 feet wide and from 50 to 120 feet long. They are 
equipped with tracks upon which the kiln cars move through the drying 
chambers, the wide kilns having two tracks and the narrow kilns one. Be- 
low the tracks is a pit from three to six feet deep to provide for the heating 
pipes and easy movement of air below the cars. The ceilings are from 11 to 
12 feet above the rails. 

The foundations and floors are usually of concrete (3 inches thick) and 
the roof of laminated wood construction (2 inches x 6 inches), although 
arched tile and concrete roofs have been successfully used to make the kilns 
fire resistant. The walls are made of hollow tile, brick or concrete, usually 
about 12 inches thick, reinforced by pilasters. 

There is little difference in the average cost of brick or concrete kilns, 
although local conditions may make one considerably cheaper than the other. 
The following tabulation will serve as a guide in estimating the complete 
cost of typical kiln buildings, including doors, foundations, floors, and roofs, 
but no piping, track, or other equipment, since these are covered elsewhere. 

96 



Drying period. 




hours 


High 


24 


40 


36 


26.6 


48 


20 


60 


- 16.6 


72 


13.3 



High 


Medium 


Low 


$ 0.12 


$ 0.10 


$ 0.08 


.25 


.20 


.15 


.25 


.15 


.1:1 


.05 


.04 


.03 


22.00 


20.00 


18.00 


1.35 


1.25 


1.15 


50.00 


40.00 


30.00 



COST OF KILN BUILDINGS (1916) 

Item 
Foundations and floors, per square foot 

Walls, per square foot 

Roof, per square foot 

Roof covering-, per square foot 

Slatted asbestos doors (9x12 ft. each). 

Door track, per linear foot 

Door carriers, each 

TRACKS, TRACK SUPPORTS, AND PIPING 

Kiln tracks are usually of thirty-five pound railroad steel, costing from 
•HO to $50 per ton delivered at Pacific Coast terminals. This makes the 
tracks cost about 25 cents per foot per rail. The rails are spaced about six 
feet apart, and at a slope of 1/40 to facilitate movement of the cars through 
the kilns. 

The track supports vary in height from three to six feet, depending on the 
depth of the pit. It used to be the practice to provide the slope to the 
track by varying the height of the supports, but now the floor of the pits is 
sloped at the same angle as the track and the supports are of uniform 
height. 

By attaching horizontal cross pieces to the upright supports provision is 
made for suspending the pipes. 

The standard pipe for kilns is one inch in inside diameter. It is usually 
made of wrought iron and costs from $5 to $8 per 100 feet delivered at Pa- 
cific Coast terminals (1916). The average amount of pipe is about one-half 
of a linear foot to each cubic foot of kiln, inside measure above the rails. 

The pipes are easily drained, since they take the same slope as the track 
and are carried on the same supports, Fig. 40. 



- W^ m '''"'-'''--'^^ 




Fig. 40. Sectional view of two-chamber dry kiln with vertical stacked kiln 
cars, showing how take-up stakes absorb slack due to shrinkage and keep load 
tight and boards flat. 

For standard kilns there is little or no difference in the cost of the equip- 
ment installed, such as tracks, track supports, and steam pipes and their 



97 



supports. The figure commonly used in estimating the cost of this portion 
of fir kilns is from $.90 to $1.00 per square foot of kiln, inside measurement. 
This does not include tracks outside the kiln, nor steam mains and hot water 
pipes between the kilns and power plant; it does not include the usual in- 
stallation of perforated pipes for giving the lumber a preliminary steaming. 
This part of the equipment weighs about 5 pounds per square foot of kiln. 

THERMOMETERS 

It is essential that each unit of a battery of kilns be equipped with a re- 
cording thermometer. One thermometer for a series of kiln chambers is not 
sufficient, since the temperatures are seldom the same in all the chambers, 
nor do they vary a constant amount. The thermometer is placed far enough 
from the door to eliminate the cooling effect of cracks, and well away from 
cold air ducts and other disturbing elements. 

Recording thermometers can be purchased at from $40 to $50 each (1916) 
(16 foot extension). 

GAUGES, REDUCTION VALVES, AND STEAM TRAPS 

Steam gauges, reduction valves, and steam traps are necessary to success- 
ful kiln operations. There is usually a separate gauge and reduction valve 
for each unit of a battery of kilns. These are for use in controlling and 
maintaining a proper drying temperature. Steam traps are very effective in 
ejecting, automatically and without unnecessary loss of steam, the water 
which constantly condenses in the pipes. 

AUTOMATIC TEMPERATURE REGULATORS 

Even where gauges, reduction valves, and traps are used, it is difficult to 
maintain a constant temperature in dry kilns; for a drop or increase must 
be indicated on the recording thermometers before the operator is aware of 
the conditions in the kiln, and it usually takes some time before the temper- 
ature can be brought back to normal. A regulating device which controls 
the temperature automatically and within one degree at all times has re- 
cently (1916) been placed on the market. It costs approximately $120 per 
kiln, exclusive of compressed air equipment. 

THE DRYING PROCESS (1916) 
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT 

Many kilns for drying Douglas fir are equipped with perforated pipes by 
nieans of which the boards in the drying chamber may be given a steam 
bath before the drying process is begun. The need for this preliminary 
treatment depends upon the condition of the lumber when it reaches the kiln 
(whether it is surface dried) and the rapidity with which the drying opera- 
tion is to be conducted. Successful drying requires that the moisture be 
evaporated from the surface of the board at no faster rate than it is con- 
ducted from the interior to the surface. If it dries too rapidly on the sur- 
face, warping, checking, and casehardening may result; and if it dries too 
slowly, the kilns are not being operated at their full capacity. Since the 
rapidity with which the moisture is drawn from the interior by capillary 
action is in proportion to the temperature of the wood, the wood should be 
well heated before the drying is started, unless it is to be dried at a very 
slow rate. Preliminary steaming not only heats the wood and prepares it 
for drying, but moistens the surface and retards or prevents drying until the 
wood is in condition to dry without injury. 

TEMPERATURE 

. Sufficient heat constantly maintained is the most important element of 
efficient kiln drying. If the boards are given a proper preliminary steam 
bath and the humidity in the kiln is kept reasonably high (by the exclusion 

98 



of draughts or otherwise) during the early stages of the drying process, the 
temperature may be maintained well above the boiling point of water 
(212° F.) without injury to the wood (Douglas fir) for most purposes and the 
maximum capacity of the kilns can be reached. The only danger is that the 
lumber may be dried too much by being left in the kiln too long under ex- 
cessive heat or by the humidity's being allowed to fall too soon. Tempera- 
tures above 230° F. are not advisable unless special equipment is employed 
to insure the maintenance of proper humidity at all times. 

High temperatures decompose the pitch and prevent it from exuding after 
the boards are put to use. 

It is important that uniform temperatures be maintained both day and 
night, since any reduction in temperature causes the suspended moisture to 
be deposited on the lumber, so that it must again be evaporated before the 
drying can continue. Heat from exhaust steam is seldom uniform or suffici- 
ent for keeping up the temperature properly. Temperature regulating de- 
vices are desirable, for they insure sufficient heat to prevent condensation or 
other hindrances to efficient work. 

HEATING THE LUMBER 

It is essential that the heat be transmitted from the pipes to the individ- 
ual boards as rapidly as possible. Heat is transmitted through air by radi- 
ation, convection, and conduction. Any factors in the construction or opera- 
tion of the kiln which accelerate the flow of heat in any of these three ways 
aid the drying operation. Conversely, any interference with such means 
retards drying. 

Radiated heat is transmitted only in a straight line, either directly or by 
reflection. Radiation is the most active force in liberating heat from the 
steam pipes to the air. Its activity is controlled chiefly by differences in 
temperature between the pipe and the surrounding air, and therefore it is 
best to separate and "stagger" the pipes (Fig. 40) in such a way that the 
heat from one pipe will reduce the radiation from its neighbor as little as 
possible. Straight vertical openings through each car of lumber greatly 
assist radiation in transmitting the heat to the load. 

Convection is next in importance. By it the warm air, which is ex- 
panded by the heat radiated from the coils, rises through the load. Here 
again s^traight vertical openings greatly assist the flow of heat. 

Conduction ordinarily plays a minor part, since air is a poor conductor 
of heat; but when flat piling is employed, some heat does reach the boards 
by being conducted horizontally through the air spaces between the boards. 

Circulation may be accelerated in several ways; but regardless of the 
method, it is essential that the heat be distributed through the load as uni- 
formly as possible in order that both sides of the boards may dry at the 
same rate (to avoid warping) and that all of them may be equally dry when 
the load is removed from the kiln. 

False walls, cooling pipes, sprays, and other means of creating differences 
in temperature to induce convection (circulation) all assist in the drying 
operation; but if the heating pipes are properly arranged and high tempera- 
tures and vertical stacking are used, false walls are about all that is neces- 
sary to insure good circulation. The normal movement of the air is up 
through the load and down the sides (Fig. 40). Heating pipes should be 
placed only beneath the load. If they are placed to either side, they prevent 
downward circulation at the sides and thus retard drying. 

DRAUGHTS 

Many of the older kilns and some of the new ones are built with air ducts 
and ventilators to encourage a constant passage of air through the loads of 
lumber, to assist in drying, and to carry the moisture from the kilns. These 
are necessary where low temperatures are used, since under such conditions 

99 



lumber will not dry properly in stagnant air. They make control of humid- 
ity difficult, however; and unless there is special equipment for the regula- 
tion of humidity, or the kilns are operated at very low temperatures, warp- 
ing and checking are difficult to avoid. 

If temperatures near or above the boiling point are used, draughts are 
not needed, since the extreme heat causes the water to evaporate without 
the exchange of air and the water vapors are forced from the kiln by the 
pressure created. High temperature kilns should be constructed so that 
draughts through the kiln are impossible, although vents for the discharge 
of surplus moisture may be employed. The actual need for such vents has 
not yet been proved, for Douglas fir kilns are being operated successfully 
with the cracks around the doors as the only means of escape for the sur- 
plus moisture. 

HUMIDITY 

In the operation of low temperature kilns equipped with air ducts and 
ventilators to create draughts, the relative humidity (ratio of the amount of 
moisture the air contains to the maximum amount it could contain at its 
temperature) of the air passing through the loads of lumber is the para- 
mount drying factor, since the air acts as an absorbent of the moisture as 
v/ell as the vehicle by which it is removed from the kiln. Cold outside air, 
humidity about 70 per cent, is conveyed (by means of natural draught) up 
through the heating pipes, where its humidity is reduced to about 15 per 
cent. Through proper arrangement of the ventilators, this dry, absorbent 
air is passed through the loads of lumber, striking the driest loads first, 
gathering moisture from the boards and conveying it to the outside air. 
The process is extremely delicate, however, owing to the difficulty of regu- 
lating the speed with which the air passes through the kilns. It is obvious 
that every gust of wind will change the velocity and may bring very dry air 
in contact with some of the green lumber, so as to cause excessive surface 
drying. 

TIME REQUIRED FOR KILN DRYING DOUGLAS FIR 

When properly kilned, Douglas fir lumber contains from five to eight per 
cent of moisture (i. e., the kiln dry boards weigh only from 5 to 8 per cent 
more than they would weigh if they contained no moisture at all). If dried 
below this moisture content, the boards become brittle and the expense of 
the excessive drying is largely wasted; if the lumber is exposed to the air 
(especially during the winter months) it will absorb to 6 or 10 per cent 
moif;ture. 

It is important when dry kilns are first installed, and subsequently as 
occasion demands, that a series of tests be made to ascertain how long lum- 
ber of given size and condition must be left in the kilns to reach the proper 
degree of dryness. If such determinations are not made and the time is 
based entirely on estimates, the lumber is likely to leave the kiln either too 
dry or too wet; for it is very difficult to build kilns sufficiently alike ♦^o in- 
sure the same degree of humidity and temperature under apparently identi- 
cal conditions. 

Test pieces should be placed in at least one load of each charge until the 
experiments indicate that uniform results are being obtained and that fur- 
ther study is unnecessary. The tests can be made in the same manner as 
those to determine the moisture content of air dried material. (See subse- 
quent paragraph). 

The time required to kiln dry Douglas fir depends upon the amount of 
circulation, the temperatures used, and the humidity of the surrounding air. 
The preliminary steaming should not require more than 4 or 5 hours, if the 
sprays are sufficiently large to keep the kilns well filled with steam during 
the treatment. One inch stock can be heated through in this time. As for 
the actual drying, under normal conditions with temperatures at or above the 

100 



boiling point the heartwood of Douglas fir should lose from 1 to li/4 per cent 
of moisture per hour, until it is dried down to eight or nine per cent, there 
being about 25 per cent of the total weight of green wood due to the mois- 
ture. At this point the rate of drying falls off rapidly and the additional 
time required to evaporate further moisture is not warranted. Thus typical 
heartwood boards of one inch stock can be kilned properly in 24 hours, in- 
cluding the time used in preliminary steaming. Sapwood boards one inch 
thick can be dried in almost as short a time, since the free moisture in the 
wood cells of sap boards can be evaporated at the rate of from 30 to 35 per 
cent per hour. 

HEAT REQUIRED FOR KILN DRYING 

It is well to make temperature tests simultaneously with the time tests. 
These will give an idea of the distribution of heat through the loads and 
show the relation between the temperatures indicated on the recording kiln 
thermometer and those actually found in the loads. The tests can be made 
with either maximum or recording thermometers. The recording thermom- 
eters are preferable because they give a complete record. 

About 800,000 British thermal units are required to properly kiln dry one 
thousand board feet of Douglas fir when the kiln temperature is 212° F. 
Five million B. t. u. are needed to dry the same amount of sap lumber, bo- 
cause of its excessive moisture; but the percentage of sap in most Douglas 
fir kiln stock is so small that for practical purposes the heartwood only may 
be used as a basis in thermal calculations. 

Since the heat for dry kilns is ordinarily supplied by the steam boilers 
used for general power purposes, the power for kilning must be computed 
in terms of boiler horsepower. One boiler horsepower is equivalent to the 
heat necessary to evaporate 34.5 pounds of water from water at 212° F. into 
steam at 212° F., or 33,479 B. t. u., per hour. Thus, if the lumber is to be 
dried in twenty-four hours, 33,333 B. t. u. (one twenty-fourth of 800,000 units), 
or approximately one boiler horsepower, is required for each one thouscind 
board feet of lumber in the kilns. This is the net power requirement, and 
since considerable heat is always lost through radiation from the mains, 
kilns, and kiln doors, as well as through vents and cracks, it is best to fig- 
ure on from 50 to 100 per cent more. 

LOADING KILN LUMBER 
ARRANGEMENT OF STOCK 

Both the flat method and the edge method of loading are in use in kilny 
in the fir region. The former is more common, but the latter (Fig. 40) is 
more efficient and is rapidly displacing the other in the most progressive 
operations. The lengths may or may not be separated in either method; 
but where the lumber is piled flat the widths should be separated, if possi- 
ble, since it is difficult to pile mixed widths flat and insure uniform distri- 
bution of heat through the loads. Owing to the difference in time required 
for drying, thicknesses are kept separate in both methods. 

The courses of boards are separated by strips called stickers, which 
vary in width from one to four inches. One inch and two inches are most 
common. The thickness is nearly always one inch or slight variations from 
it to suit the stock available for the purpose, or to insure strength wher3 it 
is required. The stickers are usually made as narrow as possible without 
being unduly weak, since drying is always retarded where they come in con- 
tact with the boards Four inch flooring strips are sometimes used as 
stickers; but the strips do not dry properly and when sold with other strips 
decrease the "under weights" and in other ways make unsatisfactory stock. 

Flat piled loads of one inch boards are usually made 50 courses high for 
kilns of ordinary height, while vertical loads are from 42 to 51 courses wide, 
depending upon the thickness of the stickers. 

101 



If the lengths are to be mixed, it is advisable to make the loads as long 
as the longest pieces, so that none of the pieces will protrude from the ends 
of the load and become broken, warped, or over dried. The short pieces can 
be doubled up and those of medium length can be placed flush at alternate 
ends to make the load of even length throughout. 

OPERATIVES AND THEIR DUTIES 

The practice of piling lumber upon kiln cars by hand is rapidly becoming 
obsolete, but a good deal of the lumber is still piled in this way. The men 
usually do the piling in pairs. One man stands on the ground and hands 
the boards to the other, who is up on the load. Sometimes the material is 
placed on the kiln cars at the sorting chains, so that one handling is saved. 
This is not feasible under most conditions, since there is seldom sufficient 
lumber of one width constantly available on the sorting chains to keep a 
piling crew busy. 

Two men can load from 2,500 to 4,500 feet of lumber per hour upon kiln 
trucks, depending on the size of the boards, the size of the cars, and the 
accessibility of the lumber. The best speed can probably be made if the 
boards to be loaded are stationed at the end of the car and at a height of 
about six or eightt feet above the trucks, for then most of the boards can 
be loaded by one man working alone and pulling the lumber down upon the 
car. 

Where piling is done by machine, as in Fig. 41, two men are often used, 
one operating the machine and the other arranging the lumber on the con- 
veying chain. Under favorable conditions, however, the machine can be 
operated by one man. When the lumber stacker is placed at the end of or 
along side the sorting chains or the boards for the kiln are conveyed to the 
stacker on chains instead of trucks or other carriers, one man can easily 
operate either of the machines; otherwise two are necessary to keep the 
machines in constant operation. The machines handle from six to ten thou- 
sand feet of lumber per hour. 

LABOR COSTS (1915) 

Hand piling costs from 15 to 25 cents per thousand board feet, depending 
on the thickness and length of the material, the size of the loads, the access- 
ibility of the boards, the method of pay, and the percentage of time the men 
are actually engaged in the work. This includes handling the stickers and 
car parts. Contracts now in effect provide for from 16 to 20 cents per 
thousand board feet. 

Costs of loading kiln cars by machine vary from 7 to 18 cents per thou- 
sand feet, depending on the number of men used on each machine, the size 
of the kiln stock, and the time lost in waiting for lumber. Contracts call for 
11 cents per thousand feet for one inch lumber and 9 cents for two inch. 
The men are required to handle the car parts and stickers necessary for 
their work. 

UNLOADING AND SORTING KILN LUMBER 

Since the unloading and sorting are usually done by the same crew, it 
seems proper to treat them as one operation. At a few plants the lumber 
is carefully sorted before it goes to the kiln. It is unloaded from the kiln 
cars by the operator feeding the planing mill machine, and graded and 
handled behind the machine. This is not practicable when fast feed ma- 
chines are used; neither is the grading in the green entirely satisfactory, 
because of difficulty in detecting and anticipating defects. 

When kiln cars are unloaded by hand, the men usually work in crews 
of two. One stands on top of the load and hands the boards to the other, 
who stands on the ground and grades or sorts the boards, placing those of 
different size and quality on separate trucks. The man on the ground is the 
more skilled, and has a knowledge of the grades of the rough boards and the 
product they are best suited for. 

102 



Unloading by hand is necessary where the loads are flat piled and in 
small plants where there is not sufficient kiln stock handled to justify the 
installation of a machine. Two men can unload and sort from 20,-000 to 
40,000 feet per day. 




Fig. 41. Tilted car lype of lumber stacker. 



The cost of unloading and sorting by hand varies from 20 to 40 cents, 
depending upon the average size of the stock and the amount of sorting 
done. One contract in effect where the work is fairly representative calls 
for 25 cents per 1,000, including emptying the kilns and careful sorting. 
Another contract, for unloading without sorting, is for 12 V2 cents per 1,000. 

Unloading machines like the one shown in Fig. 42 are very efficient and 
are used wherever the amount handled warrants. The actual unloading can 
be done by one man, but it usually requires two or more to sort the stock, 
depending upon the speed at which the machine is operated and the number 
of segregations employed, i. e., the length of the sorter. From 100,000 to 
150,000 feet can be unloaded daily with one of these machines. 

The sorting is done on tables similar to the green lumber sorting table, 
only smaller and operated with fewer men. 

The cost of unloading and sorting by machine varies from 15 to 30 cents. 
The unloading runs from 3 to 10 cents per 1,000 and the rest is for grading 
and sorting. The machine work could be made much cheaper than the hand 
work if there was less sorting; but at all plants where machines are em- 
ployed the lumber is carefully sorted for use in the manufacture of products 
for which it is best adapted. This extra expense in handling is well justified 
by the better utilization of the lumber. 

103 



LUMBER STACKING MACHINES 

Two types of machines for mechanically loading lumber upon kiln cars 
have come into considerable use in the fir region. Both of these stackers 
are designed to place the lumber in a vertical position (on edge) for the 
drying process. 

At the present date the lifting-arm stacker has gone out of use, particu- 




u 

u 

CS 
(A 

C 

s 



o 

V 






> 









104 



larly in new installations, and in some cases is being replaced by the tilted- 
car type. (Fig. 41.) 

The lumber fed into them is sorted by thickness, but may or may not be 
sorted by widths and lengths. It may be delivered to the machine in units, 
or on ordinary transfer chains. Delivery on transfer chains is often prefer- 
able, because it may permit successful operation of the machine by one man. 

TILTED CAR STACKER 

Kiln cars to be loaded with the tilted-car stacker are tilted to an angle 
of about 45°, as shown in Fig. 41, by means of a rack and pinion cradle. 
The lumber is slid into the stacker from the ends of skids equipped with 
slow moving chains. The skids are hinged so as to permit raising and low- 
ering as the height demanded in loading requires. The chain is operated by 
friction drive controlled by the operative. 

Tilted-car stackers are built in three sizes. The three arm size, which is 
the smallest, will accommodate lumber from 8 to 18 feet in length; the five 
arm stacker, which is the largest, will take lumber from 8 to 24 feet in 
length. The largest size is best suited to most Douglas fir operations, since 
considerable lumber is cut in lengths greater than 18 feet. 

The three arm stackers cost about $950, the four arm $1,200, and the 
five arm $1,450 installed (1916). They weigh 7,000, 8,000, and 12,000 pounds 
respectively. These costs do not include the sorting chains and drive. 

The power for this kind of stacker is usually furnished by a five horse- 
power motor which, according to the following power data, is ample: 

Average input during day 2.25 Kw. 

Maximum instantaneous input 5.10 Kw. 

Maximum sustained input 2.8 Kw. 

Friction of transmission 1.4 Kw. 

The average power consumed per thousand board feet of lumber is 0.48 
Kw. Hrs. 

LIFTING-ARM STACKER 
A lifting-arm stacker is fed in the same manner as the tilted-car stacker, 
but the car remains in a normal position and each tier of boards is raised 
to a vertical position by a series of arms and the stickers held against by 
triggers. The machines are built in the same sizes as the others and the 
cost is approximately the same. 

A three or five horse power motor is large enough for a stacker of this 
kind, since the only work directly chargeable to actual stacking is that re- 
quired in lifting the arms and a layer of boards from an oblique to a vertical 
position and bringing the truck forward a distance equal to the thickness of 
the stock and sticker. Tests show that about 4.3 Kw. are needed for such 
work. The motors for stackers of this class are also frequently connected in 
such a way that they can be made to run the conveying chains as well. 

LUMBER UNSTACKING MACHINES 

There are two types of machines for unstacking dry kiln cars. They are 
alike in size (3, 4, or 5 arms) and both deposit the lumber upon ordinary 
sorting chains, where it can be graded and segregated easily. 

VERTICAL UNSTACKER 

The vertical unstacker, so called because the lumber is removed from the 
machine in a vertical direction, is the older type and has been in successful 
operation for a number of years. It moves the boards from their position in 
the load by means of an endless chain equipped with lugs or brackets which 
catch beneath the edge of the bottom boards of each tier consecutively and 
force the layer of boards up along and over the upright parts of the ma- 
chine, from where they slide down slanting skids to the sorting chains. 

105 



A five horse power motor should be sufficiently large for these unstack- 
ers, since tests show that the average demand for unloading is only 3.2 Kw., 
and the maximum 3.9 Kw. 

The vertical unstacking machines cost (1916) $750, $850, and $950, respec- 
tively, for use with the 3 arm, 4 arm, and 5 arm stackers. These are in- 
stalled prices exclusive of motor. 

HORIZONTAL UNSTACKER 

The horizontal unstacker removes the lumber from the cars after they 
have been placed in a horizontal position in a cradle operated by a motor- 
driven rack and pinion. An endless chain slides the individual layers 
upon a sorting chain, which is made adjustable at the end near the car so 
that it can be lowered as the car is unloaded. 

No power data are avaliable for this unstacker, but the company making 
them recommends a 6 h. p. motor. The larger motor is necessary because 
of the temporary heavy demand in tilting the car to a horizontal position. 

KILN CARS 

CARS FOR EDGE-STACKED LUMBER 

Typical kiln cars are composed of three essential parts— trucks, bunks, 
and stakes. Each bunk is ordinarily equipped with two trucks and two 
stakes. The cars shown in Fig. 40 are equipped with the take-up stake, 
which automatically prevents warping by tightening the load as shrinkage 
takes place. Such cars are ordinarily used with lumber eight inches or over 
in width and may be used to advantage with all widths, since they tend to 
keep the loads tight and prevent them from falling apart in the kilns. 

For charge kilns, it is usually good practice to figure on sufficient cars to 
fill the kilns twice. For progressive kilns, fifty per cent more than the capac- 
ity of the kilns is ample. 

The cost of each standard set of car parts for vertical stacked loads is as 
follows (1916): 

2 18 inch trucks, 8 inch wheels @ $3.50 each $7.00 

1 8 foot bunk 5.75 

2 11 foot stakes @ $2.90 each 5.80 

1 binder I.I5 

$19.70 

Extra for "take-up" stake $6.00 

The number of sets required for each kiln car is as follows: 

For lumber from 6 feet to 12 feet long 2 sets 

For lumber from 14 feet to 22 feet long 3 sets 

For lumber from 24 feet to 32 feet long 4 sets 

CARS FOR FLAT-PILED LUMBER 

A typical car for flat piled lumber consists of a series of bolsters or bunks 
supported at either end by a short two wheeled truck similar to those used 
for edge stacked lumber. From three to five of these sets of bunks and 
trucks are used to a load, depending on the length of the lumber. The bunks 
are usually of wood, about 8 inches x 8 inches in cross-section and from 8 to 
9 feet long. They are spaced so that they come directly beneath each of the 
stickers. 

The trucks cost $3.50 each or $7.00 per set, and the bunks cost $0.50 each 
(1916). Steel bunks which cost $5.50 are sometimes used. 

COST OF KILN SUPPLIES AND REPAIRS 

Kiln supply costs include lumber used for stickers, oils for stacking and 
unstacking machines, ink and charts for recording thermometers, and the 

106 



like. The stickers are the principal item of expense, and their cost varies 
with their size and the spacing employed, being from one to three cents per 
thousand feet of lumber dried. One or two cents is ample for the majority 
of cases. The cost of the other supplies seldom exceeds a fraction of a cent 
per 1,000 feet of lumber dried. 

Information obtained at a large number of plants indicates that kiln re- 
pair costs for labor and materials range from two or three cents to fifteen 
or twenty cents per thousand feet of lumber dried. In the majority of cases 
they were between five and ten cants per thousand; and it is believed that 
well constructed kilns can be kept in good condition on the basis of the 
lower figure. 

STORAGE TRACKS AND SHEDS FOR LOADED CARS 

A plan for kiln storage tracks and cooling sheds is given in Figs. 2 and 38. 

TRACKS 

The storage tracks in fi-ont of and at the rear of the kiln are usually 
made long enough to take from one car to as many cars as the kiln will hold, 
depending upon the method of charging and discharging the kilns. The gauge 
of the track is commonly 6 feet, and the rails are of 30 or 35 pound steel. 
The distance between the two inside rails of a double tracked kiln is 3 feet- 
6 inches; and the distance from the outside rail of one kiln compartment to 
the outside rail of the next one to it is 5 feet-2 inches. These distances give 
ample room for men to go between the cars. 

The tracks cost about 30 cents per running foot of rail, installed. 

COOLING SHEDS 
At the rear of the kilns the tracks are usually covered by sheds to keep 
the material dry while it is being cooled and waiting to be unloaded. These 
sheds cost from ten to twelve cents per square foot (of ground covered) 
above the platforms, including lumber, roofing, hardware, and all labor. In 
one shed there are 3% board feet of lumber per square foot of shed. 

TRANSFER CARS 

A typical transfer car is shown in Fig. 43. It is operated by endless 
cables running along the transfer track, one strand moving in one direction 
and the other in the opposite direction. The kiln cars are pulled on or off 
the transfer car by means of blocks and an extra drum acting as a wind- 
lass and driven by the same cable which operates the transfer car. Such a 
transfer car costs about $150 (1916), exclusive of cable and drive, and 
weighs between 1,600 and 1,700 pounds. 




Fig. 43. Four track transfer car for switching kiln cars. 

SORTING TABLE FOR KILN-DRIED LUMBER 

As the kiln dried boards come from the unloading machines they are run 
out upon a sorting table, and are segregated into sizes and grades for the 

107 



dry storage sheds or the planing machines. This table is from 16 to 20 feet 
wide, has from 4 to 6 chains, and is from 75 to 200 feet long, depending upon 
the number of segregatio)is provided for and whether the layout permits 
sorting on one or both sides of the table. The chains and drive are usually 
lighter than those of the green sorters, but the method of conistruction is 
similar. 

Where kiln car unloading is done by hand, sorting tables are not used 
and the sorting is done by the unloading crew, the pieces being placed direct- 
ly upon trucks. 

The general layout of the table and shed is shown in Fig. 2. Usually the 
shed is smaller and less elaborate than that shown, but it is always of suffic- 
ient size to keep the stock protected from the weather. 

The sorting Is in charge of a marker or grader, who determines the use 
to which each piece can best be put; that is, whether it should be run to 
flooring, drop siding, ceiling, or what not. He is assisted by a sufficient num- 
ber of sorters to segregate the stock properly into units for the monorail, 
crane, or auto trucks. 

Sometimes a rip saw is placed beside the sorting chains, and boards 
which must be ripped to improve the grade are diverted to the rip saw and 
returned to the chains for regrading after cutting. 

The cost data given previously for transfer tables and their drives are 
applicable to these tables, and the shed costs can be estimated from the 
data given for the green sorting sheds. The speed of the chains and the 
power requirements are like those for other sorters. 



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108 



Fig. 38. Layout of planing mill for practically c 



AIR SEASONING AND STORAGE 

The purpose of air seasoning lumber before shipment is primarily to 
effect a saving in freight by evaporating the surplus moisture and decreasing 
the weight. Seasoning also prevents shrinkage and warping when the lum- 
ber is put to use. Furthermore, many buyers prefer air dry lumber because 
green boards have a tendency to depreciate in grade during the seasoning 
operation and they do not care to stand this loss in value. Storage yards 
are necessary as a place to pile properly that portion of the cut for which 
there is no immediate demand. 

YARDS 

The main gangways of a lumber yard (Figs. 2 and 44) are usually 24 
feet wide, and the side gangways 20 feet. The space between the rear ends 
of the piles is from 4 to 12 feet. Twelve feet allows room for lumber of un- 
usual length without blocking the movement of air between the rows of piles. 
A wide space is advisable where at all possible. The space between the 
sides of the piles is ordinarily from 2 to 3 feet, 2 feet being most common. 

An ideal yard layout provides foundations for two or more piles of each 
size and class of material. When this is not possible, different lengths of 
the same thickness, width, and grade are placed in the same pile. There is 
little or no uniformity among fir operators as to the grouping of the piles. 
Some group piles contain the same length in one gangway; others group 
their piles by grades; and still others by thickness, keeping the piles con- 
taining material of the same size and grade as close together as possible. 
Of these various methods, the length scheme seems least desirable because 
it necessitates going to a large number of gangways to get material for the 



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handling by one overhead travelling crane. 



109 



J 



usual run of orders; and unless full trucks of each length are required, the 
trucks must be moved around considerably to assemble the shipment, or 
sorting must be done at the car^^-- 

' PILES 

The height of the piles in Douglas fir yards seldom exceeds 18 or 20 feet 
(50 courses of 2 inch and 100 courses of 1 inch) unless the piling is done by 
machine (Fig. 44). The slope of the boards (from the horizontal) is usually 
1 to 24 and the pitch of the pile (from the vertical) is 1 to 12. The first 
angle is to make the boards and pile shed water, and the second is to pre- 
vent rain from getting into the pile and running down the boards. 

The horizontal space between the boards is usually one-half the width of 
the piece but seldom exceeds 3 inches when the widths are piled separately. 
The vertical spacing is either 1 inch or 2 inches, pieces of the regular stock 
being usually used for cross sticks, except when the stock is thicker than 3 
inches and longer than 20 feet, in which case strips 1x3 or 1x4 are used for 
cross pieces. 

Two inch stock 8 and 10 feet long is piled with only two cross pieces; 
12 to 20 foot stock requires three; and stock 22 feet and longer usually four 
and sometimes five cross pieces. One inch stock 8 and 10 feet long is us- 
ually stacked with three cross pieces, and 12 to 20 foot stock with four. 

By staggering the cross pieces so that there is only a 2 inch or 3 inch lap 
(Fig. 34), one side of each board is exposed to the air and the tendency of 
wide cross pieces to retard drying is reduced. 

Two by fours are sometimes placed on edge to increase the capacity of 
the piles and to keep the edges straight. This is not common, however, and 
requires more time in piling. 

Permanent cover boards are seldom used in Douglas fir yards. The 
covers are usually made by lapping two layers and double lengths of the 
stock in the pile (Fig. 34) and binding these down with a cross piece held 
by a rpd or wire to sticks inserted in the pile. The use of the regular stock 
for cross pieces and pile covers does away with sticker and pile cover 
board costs, but it decreases the saving in freight rates and increases the 
amount of lumber depreciated in grade during the air seasoning process. 

TIME REQUIRED FOR DRYING 

The green heartwood of Douglas fir usually contains from 30 to 32 per 
cent of its oven dry weight in moisture, and the sapwood as high as 100 per 
cent. Because of the marked variation in the humidity of the atmosphere 
during the different months of the year, the rate of drying is not at all uni- 
form. Under good drying conditions one inch fir lumber properly piled 
should reach an air dry state in from 45 to 60 days. During the winter 
months, when the humidity is high, one inch stock requires three or four 
months and dimension stock six or eight months to reach an air dry state 
even when properly piled. Lumber dried in winter is never as dry as that 
dried in summer because the moisture content of air dry wood always holds 
a definite relation to the humidity of the surrounding atmosphere. 

The amount of moisture in lumber which has been thoroughly air dried 
(i. e. which has reached a constant weight) varies in summer from 10 to 12 
per cent of its oven dry weight, and in winter from 16 to 18 per cent. Lum- 
ber which contains more than these percentages of moisture is not properly 
dried; and if shipped without further drying, it will cost the operator more 
for freight than is necessary. 

In getting out rush orders it is not always possible to ship dry lumber, 
but many manufacturers are shipping lumber which is not thoroughly dry 
because no accurate means have been used to ascertain whether the mater- 
ial to be shipped is dry. The usual practice is to date the pile when com- 

110 



pleted and leave it there a specified time, if possible. No consistent record 
of weather conditions is kept, so that the piles are seldom dry when taken 
down unless the weather has been extremely favorable. At some plants the 
yard boss uses his judgment in the matter and endeavors to take the weather 
into consideration, but he has no records of the weather, and his decisions 
are largely guess work. 

Few operators have paid sufficient attention to the weight of the product 
shipped; for they are misled by the fact that there are always enough un- 
derweights to give the impression that the lumber is dry when the freight 
is checked up against the estimated shipping weight. 

For operators who desire to determine the moisture content of their air 
dry stock before shipment, the following procedure is suggested. When the 
piles are being constructed, provision may be made for removing three or 
four sample pieces from each pile (particularly from points where drying is 
likely to be slow) by placing small blocks of wood (slightly thicker than the 
lumber) on the cross pieces on either side of the board to be removed. A 
wedge-shaped piece is placed also on the board below and directly in front 
of each cross piece, so that the sample pieces can be slid back into the pile 
if desired without striking the cross pieces. These sample pieces are 
marked on the one end with red crayon to be identified easily. When the 
pile is completed or at some other convenient time the test pieces may be 
removed and a 12 inch piece sawed from the end of each and thrown away '. 
Then another piece 12 inches long is sawed off, and corresponding pile num- 
bers and piece letters are placed on both the original board and the piece cut 
off. These are for identification and reference. Both pieces are carefully 
weighed (within 1 per cent) and their weights marked on the respective 
pieces or in a note book, or both. The small pieces are put in the dry kiln 
and left there until repeated weighings fail to show any loss of moisture ". 
The absolute dry weight is determined for each piece and the following cal- 
culations made to determine the moisture content in per cent. 

The percentage of moisture in the piece is ascertained by dividing the 
original weight by the absolute dry weight and discarding the figure 1 to the 
left of the decimal. The remaining figures represent the percentage of mois- 
ture in terms of the dry weight. For example, if the small piece weighs 40 
ounces originally and 30 ounces absolutely dry, the moisture content is 33.3 
per cent before drying (40/30 = 1.333). The corresponding large pieces must 
have had 33.3 per cent moisture also, and to determine what it should weigh 
when dried to 12 per cent moisture (summer air dry condition), the follow- 
ing calculation is necessary. Assuming that the green weight of the large 
piece was 60 pounds: 

60:1.33 : : X : 1.12 

1.33 X = 67.2 

X = 50.4 

According to the calculation the large piece must be left in the pile until it 
weighs only 50.4 pounds before it is thoroughly air dried. 

Where it is not possible to weigh the large pieces in the yard the mois- 
ture determination may be postponed until just before the pile is taken 
down, and calculations may be made on the small samples, or yard scales 
may be installed for weighing truck loads or a number of boards. 

OPERATIVES AND THEIR DUTIES ^ 

Piling in the yard is usually done by experienced men working in crews 
of two. One stands on the ground or truck and hands the material up to 
the man on the pile. The piler must be skilled in building the piles neatly 



' This is to prevent end drying from disturbing tlie calculations. 
^ These repeated weighings are not necessary after the time required to 
reach constant weight under given conditions has once been ascertained. 

Ill 



/ 



and with reasonable speed. In taking the lumber down the operation is re- 
versed and often done under the supervision of an inspector, who grades and 
tallies the pieces to be shipped: Two men can pile from 3,000 to 6,000 feet 
per hour, depending on their skill and the class of stock handled. 

LUMBER PILING MACHINE "^ 

A machine for piling and unpiling lumber has lately been placed on the 
market and is said to be well adapted to handling lumber rapidly and eco- 
nomically under certain conditions. It is of especial value where yard 
space is limited and the capacity of pile bases must be increased or where 
large high piles of lumber can be built without tying up too much stock dur- 
ing the construction of the piles. 

The machine (Fig, 44) consists of an endless chain elevator equipped 
about every 4 feet with double brackets upon which the boards are con- 
veyed in a horizontal position, over the top of the machine and down to a 
point where they can be reached by the man on the pile. The entire equip- 
ment is mounted on a car (having either flanged or flat wheels) upon v/hich 
it is moved around the yard. The machine requires very little power. The 
speed of the chains can be regulated according to the number of men en- 
gaged in the work. A crew of three men is ordinarily employed, one on the 
ground and two on the pile. 

The machines in use at present are of various heights from 24 to 40 feet. 
The capacity varies with the size of the lumber. Machines used for all sizes 
of material are said to have averaged more than 10,000 board feet per hour, 
which would indicate that certain sizes have been handled at a much greater 
rate. The chain normally moves at 30 feet per minute; i. e., eight boards 
per minute are raised to or lowered from the piles. 

The machines shown in Fig. 44 can be obtained complete with electric 
motor and extension wire cord at the following prices: 

COST OF PILING MACHINE (1910) 

Size of piler, 
ft. 

24 
26 
30 
40 

Similar pilers equipped with gasoline engine drive can be obtained at 
slightly higher prices. 

COST OF AIR SEASONING 

The average labor cost of hand piling for air seasoning varies from 17 tc 25 
cents per 1,000 feet. For unpiling, the cost, exclusive of grading, is from 12 
to 20 cents. In addition, there is a small amount of lumber (about 15 per 
cent) on the average for all grades and sizes which must be rehandled after 
drying because it falls in grade during seasoning. This may either be left on 
the ground in front of the pile and shipped when an order is received for it 
or it may be hauled to a pile of such material. The latter procedure keeps 
the yard in an orderly condition and facilitates inventorying and assembling 
for shipment. 

In many plants the scarcity of trucks often necessitates placing lumber on 
the ground in front of the piles temporarily, awaiting the arrival of the pil- 
ing crew. The amount of lumber so handled is from 10 to 30 per cent. 
This increases the total handling cost from 1 to 3 cents per thousand. 

The average labor cost of piling, unpiling, and rehandling, exclusive of 
transportation, is from 35 to 50 cents per thousand feet air dried. 

LABOR 

The following cases are illustrative of the cost of handling stock on con- 
tract in the yards of Douglas lir mills. 

112 



Weight, 


Cost (f.o.b. Seattle) 


lbs. 


% 


6,000 


850 


6,500 


900 


7,500 


1,000 


10,000 


1,150 




Fig. 44. Lumber piling and unpiling machine. (Also shows method of piling 

boards parallel to machine,) 



113 



Case No. 1. — 50,000 feet handled daily: unloading trucks— 14 cents per 
1,000; piling — 25 cents per 1,000; unpiling — 14 cents per 1,000. 

Case No. 2. — 25,000 feet handled daily: unloading trucks — 16 cents per 
1,000; loading trucks — 12 V^ cents per 1,000; piling 1x8 inch and wider, and 
2 inch— 18 cents per 1,000; piling 1x4 inch and 1x6 inch — 22 cents per 
1,000; unpiling— 14 cents per 1,000. 

Case No. 3.-600,000 feet handled daily: piling all sizes and lengths up to 
32 feet — 17 cents per 1,000; piling 32 feet and longer 25 cents per 1,000. 

Case No. 4. -200,000 feet handled daily: piling all stock regardless of 
size — 22 cents i;er 1,000. 

Case No. 5.-60,000 feet handled daily: unloading trucks -12 V^ cents per 
1,000; loading trucks — 12*4 cents per 1,000; piling 2x4 inch to 12 inch 
16 cents' per 1,000; piling 1x3 inch to 12 inch — 20 cents per 1,000; piling 
3x4 inch x 4 to 12 inch — 20 cents per 1,000. 

Under careful supervision contract labor is very satisfactory and econom- 
ical. It also has the advantage of giving definite cost information. It has 
the disadvantage of necessitating tallies of all stock handled; but the saving 
oflsets such expense many fold and the additional information is in itself 
worth the cost of making the tallies. 

YARD SUPPLIES 

Usually the only supplies for air seasoning that figure in the cost are 
stickers and cover boards '. Stickers cost from 2 to 3 cents per 1,000 of lum- 
ber piled with them. Cover boards cost from 1 to 2 cents per 1,000 feet of 
lumber covered. 1 hey are not common at lir yards. 

Where the yard is covered by a shed pile covers are eliminated, and there 
is, besides, less depreciation of stock from sun checks. The product is also 
protected from rains, which greatly increase the shipping weight during wet 
weather. There are only a few yards under cover in the fir region. It is 
very probable that there will be more when all the advantages are better 
understood. 

YARD REPAIRS 

Costs for repairs in connection with air seasoning are almost negligible, 
since the transportation costs cover repair to gangways. The only other 
expense is for keeping the pile bottoms in satisfactory condition. Ordinarily, 
this is small (less than a cent per 1,000) unless the foundations are on soft 
ground or on piling in salt water. 

COST OF PILE BOTTOMS 

Pile bottoms vary in cost from f.40 to .$1.50 per linear foot of pile width. 

The following average costs are for the typical kinds: 
Solid ground: 

3 bents ' $0.40 per linear foot. 

4 bents ' .53 per linear foot. 

Swamp: 

3 bents ' 1.00 per linear foot. 

4 bents - 1.33 per linear foot, 

Tideland: 

3 bents - 1.20 per linear foot. 

4 bents - 1.60 per linear foot. 

Since it takes about 1 linear foot of pile bottom for each 1,000 board feet 
of yard stock carried, the co.st for yards of various sizes can be computed 
readily. 



' Liimlter up to 2U feet stuck with same stock; 22 foot and 24 foot stock 
stuck with 1 X 4 X 12 foot stickers. 

' Lumber for tram repairs is taken care of under transportation. 
'Supported on blocks of wood. 

-On piling. 

114 



SHEDS FOR ROUGH DRY LUMBER 

Only a very few Douglas fir mills are equipped to store the rough dry 
stock. The practice is to run Douglas fir into specific forms in advance of 
orders. This tends to break the market when there is a reduced demand 
for a given form and it must be moved to obtain room or to obtain working 
capital. The use of sheds for rough lumber permits storing the stock in a 
form suitable for the manufacture of a variety of products. It also insures 
sufllcient material to keep the planing mill machines operating a reasonable 
length of time on stock of a given size and pattern. 

Storage sheds for rough lumber are of various sizes and shapes. Their 
cost is about the same as that of the dressed storage sheds. Where sheds 
for rough lumber are used, the size of the dressed lumber sheds can be 
greatly reduced. 



X16 



PLANING MILL 

Nearly all Douglas fir plants have fully equipped planing mills. Many 
factors are responsible for the present practice of manufacturing finished 
farms at the sawmills instead of at independent wood working plants. The 
principal reason is that it reduces the weight of the product which must be 
shipped; the second is the economy in manufacture due to cheap handling 
and cheap power; and, third, is the desire to put the lumber into a form 
which can be handled by the retail yards without special equipment for 
finishing to suit the ultimate consumer. 

The general layout of a Douglas fir planing mill of modern design is 
shown in Fig. 45'. 

BUILDINGS 

The planing mill buildings are usually of the shed or one story type with 
end walls but no side walls. They are ordinarily from 80 to 100 feet wide 
and as long as necessary to accommodate the various machines. They are 
seldom less than 200 feet long, and range from this up to about 700 feet, in- 
cluding the sorting tables at the larger plants. In order to allow ample 
room, it is the practice to figure on about 16 feet for each machine and 
about an equal amount for each sorter. Details of construction of a planing 
mill building are shown in Figs. 46 and 47. The construction is not exactly 



aA8X3Z-0^ 







Fig. 46. Partial end elevation of a planing mill building anil design of trusses 

to eliminate interior posts. 

typical because of the oblique arrangement of the glass, which is designed to 
admit more light than is admitted by the usual vertical window. Good light 
is essential. 



45» On page 124 and 125. 



116 




117 



lediuni, 


Lov 


Cents 


Ceni 


3 


1 


7 


5 


10 


8 


4 


3 


4 


2 



The following figures are illustrative of typical costs of such buildings. 

COST OF PLANING MILL. BUILDINGS, PER SQUARE FOOT OF 

FLOOR AREA (191G) 

High, 

Item Cents 

Foundations 4 

Joists and floors 9 

Superstructure and walls 13 

Glazing and sash 6 

Roofing material 5 

39 28 19 

MATCHERS 

A high speed matcher is shown in Fig. 48. This machine is designed for 
running such forms as flooring, ceiling, drop siding, and similar planing mill 
products at fast feed. It is made to take stock 6 inches thick and in two 
sizes up to 9 or 15 inches in width. It is too fast to be fed bj^ hand and is 
used with automatic feed tables similar to those shown in Fig. 49. The 
operative places the boards upon the table, and the spiral rolls automatically 
move them across it and into the machine. 

Fast feed machines of this kind can be operated at speeds between 100 
and 400 feet per minute, and they are actually turning out from 100,000 to 
200,000 linear feet of stock daily at some of the plants in the fir region. 
Actual feeds for such machines on fiooring, ceiling, drop siding, and rustic 
are from 250 to 400 feet ' per minute and on finish from 100 to 200 feet. Of 
course many plants are running such stock at a speed even as low as forty 
feet per minute, but only on machines equipped with few knives. The fast 
feed machines have 7 inch to 9 inch top and bottom cylinders with from 6 
to 8 knives each. They are operated at a speed which gives about 9 or 10 
knife marks to the inch. 

APPROXIMATE COST OF MATCHERS (191G) 

Size, Approximate weiglit, Approximate cost, 

in. lbs. $ 

6x9 18,500 3,200 

6 X 15 19,500 3,300 

6 X 20 21,000 3,400 

6 X 24 21,400 3,500 

6 X 30 22,000 3,600 

' The cost of wooden frame matcher feed tables like the one shown in Fig. 
38 is as follows for tables having 5 rolls: 

COST OF WOODEN FRAME MATCHER FEED TABLES (191G) 







Weight, 


Cost delivered 




Size 


lbs. 


$ 


30 


inch rolls 


3,500 


450.00 


36 


inch rolls 


3,750 


475.00 


42 


inch rolls 


4,000 


500.00 



Power for high speed matchers is usually supplied by a 50 h. p. motor, 
costing about $560 with pulley and base. The feed table can be operated 
from the same motor by means of an extra pulley on the main shaft or from 
a special pulley provided on the machine. In addition, a 15 h. p. motor, 
1,800 R. p. m., is used to run the profile attachment. 

SURFACERS 

In addition to the machines used for matching, moulding, and timber siz- 
ing, most plants are equipped with a general utility surfacer like the one 
shown in Fig. 50. Such surfacers will take stock from V2 inch to 10 inches 
thick and are made in three sizes for pieces up to 20, 24, or 30 inches wide. 



'Since the above was written I'ast feeds are said to liave become less pop- 
ular and 250 feet is now considered standard. 

118 



They are not made for high speed work; but two pieces may be fed at a 
time, and they will turn out a large volume of work when used to their best 
advantage. They are usually fed by hand, altho they may be fed with tables 




(Fig. 49). It often takes two men to handle the stock to such machines, 
either because the machines are large or because of a desire to feed two 
pieces at a time. The machines are ordinarily run from 50 to 200 feet per 
minute. 




Fig- 49. Automatic feed table for planing mill machines. 

The size, weight, and cost of large surfacers are as follows: 

COST OF LARGE SURFACERS (1916) 

Cost at 

Size, Weight, Pacific coast terminals, 

in. lbs. $ 

10 X 20 17,000 2,700 

10 X 24 18,500 2.900 

10 X 30 19,500 3,000 

These surfacers are equipped with motors of from 50 to 60 h. p. of the 
game kind as those used on timber sizers. 

MOULDERS 

The typical moulder found in mills is designed primarily for making 
mouldings, casing, base, and similar moulded forms, although it can be used 
in emergencies for any class of work. The feed is ordinarily too slow to 
make it profitable to run the more common forms. 

Machines like this are built in three sizes, for stock 8 inches and less 
and for widths up to 10, 12, and 15 inches. They run at feeds of from 25 to 
125 feet per minute; the usual feed is 50 feet. Slow feed is necessary to in- 
sure good results, although most of these machines could probably be run 
faster than is the usual practice. The knives are run at about 3,800 R. p. m. 
One can feed a machine without any automatic feed table, but a table may 
be used if desired. 

The approximate sizes, weights, and cost of moulders are given below. 
These costs include cylinders, cutterheads, and profile attachment, but do 
not include motors. 

COST OF MOULDERS (19l«) 

Size, 

in. 

8 X 10 

8 X 12 

S X 15 

The motors in use on moulders at Douglas fir planing mills vary from 25 
to 50 h. p. While power data are lacking^ it is believed that the smaller size 
is ample unless extremely fast feeds are to be used. 





Approximate cost 


Weight, 


f.o.b. coast terminals. 


lbs. 


$ 


10,000 


1.350 


10,500 


1.400 


11,500 


1,450 



120 




B 

C 



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c 

M 

CO 

•X) 
Ii 
cs 

o 

l-l 

o 



u 



c 

C8 

Ui 
V 

u 

CS 

l-l 



o 



121 



READY SIZERS 

Ready sizers are commonly placed in the re-manufacturing plant or on 
the sorting chains, so that they are often an integral part of the sawmill; 
but since the operation is surfacing or planing, they are really a part of the 
planing mill equipment. 

Sizers are designed for rapid surfacing of dimension stock in random 
widths and thicknesses just as it comes from the mill. They are meant for 
use where they can be kept supplied with large and continuous quantities of 
miscellaneous stock taken from the chains and sized before being sorted. 
They are not efficient unless kept in constant use; and there is usually a 
tendency to size too much stock in an endeavor to keep them busy. Some 
operators prefer to run the machines only as needed and to supply stock in 
units to increase their capacity by eliminating the shifting of guides. 

Sizers are usually built to take stock up to 26 inches wide and 16 inches 
thick, the minimum being 3 inches and % inch respectively. Some of them 
are also made to take shiplap as well as dimension without changing heads, 
and are thus general utility machines. 

They are sometimes fed at a speed of 250 feet per minute and equipped 
with automatic feed tables. Some are designed to take two pieces at once 
at a feed of 160 feet per minute, making an equivalent of a feed of 320 linear 
feet. 

Sizers are ordinarily built in two sizes and with or without special 
arrangement for making shiplap. 

COST OF SIZKRS (1916) 

Size, Weight, Cost delivered, Extra for shiplap, 

in. lbs. $ $ 

10 X 30 21,000 3,150 450 

16 X 30 21,500 3.250 450 

The following power data were taken on an 8 inch x 20 inch ready sizer 
fed at 250 feet per minute. A 50 h. p. motor costing about $560 will operate 
this machine. 

Input running light 10.0 Kw. 

Average input throughout day (not including delays) 34.8 Kw. 

Maximum input instantaneous 95.0 Kw. 

Maximum input sustained 54.0 Kw. 

Average input sustained 37.0 Kw. 

COST OF SURFACING AND MATCHING 

The following estimates of the labor cost of machining planing mill 
products give the range per thousand board feet, exclusive of trimming, 
grading, and bundling. 

COST OF SIIRFACING AND MATCHING 

Cost per thousand board feet, 

Size of stock, Low, Intermediate, High, 

Inches cents cents cents 

1x4 flooring and ceiling; 8 18 25 

1x6 flooring and drop siding 6 12 16 

Ix 8 flnish 8 18 25 

1 x 10 finisli 6 14 20 

1 X 12 finish 5 12 18 

2x4 dimension 6 9 15 

2x 6 4 6 10 

2x 8 3 4 7 

2x10 2.5 3.5 6 

2x12 2 3 5 

2x14 1-5 2.5 4 

1x6 boards and sliiplap 8 12 20 

Ix 8 6 8 15 

1 X 10 5 7 12 

1x12 4 6 10 

CUT-OFF SAWS 
Small swing cut-off saws are used for trimming out defects in the plan- 
ing mill products. They are made in two sizes for light and heavy work. 

122 



The large size carries 18 to 30 inch saws and the small size 14 to 16 inch 
saws. A motor driven saw is better than the shaft-driven one because it 
can be placed anywhere in the planing mill without regard to main and 
auxiliary shafting. 

When most of the trimming is done by trimmer (Fig. 51) these cut-off 
saws are used to trim only a small amount of material which gets by the 
main trimmer. Otherwise a cut-off saw is usually placed along the planer 
sorting chains for trimming all the stock. 

The large cut-off saws weigh 450 pounds and cost $55, not including the 
motor, while the small machines weigh 400 pounds and cost $50 (1916). 



I CONVCO/! TO SOfT/A/S r^0i£ ^ 



"^ 



-TH^^^HHHHHHHHHHHKHHMHHHHH^ 



iv/fsre cofjvero/fy 



^nri^^^^^^^^^^^o+°H«f? 



^ 



fNEUtlT/C TRIfMe/! 




TK/iA/sre/f T/iBiE - 




'<#■■■-■■•••■-" 



I >VjI5T£ 



Fig. 51. Pony trimmer layout for planing mills. 

PNEUMATIC TRIMMERS 

In some of the larger planing mills the patterns put through the various 
surfacing and matching machines are deposited upon a transfer table (Fig. 
45) and conveyed to a pony pneumatic trimmer similar to that used in the 
sawmill but having the saws spaced one foot apart instead of two. Details 
of such a layout are shown in Fig. 51. With this outfit one experienced 
man can trim the entire output of the planing mill at less cost than where 
there is a trimmerman behind each machine. The practice has been criti- 
cised on the grounds of true economy because the operative is said to work 
so fast that he cannot do his work properly, but there seems to be little 
difference in the actual results. The general scheme of operation is the 
same as that described for the sawmill trimmer. 

The stubs on the feed table chains are spaced about 2V^ feet apart and 
the chains are run at from 75 to 125 feet per minute, i. e., 30 to 50 pieces 
per minute. 

Twenty-foot trimmers with 21 saws weigh 20,000 pounds and cost $1,800; 
22-foot trimmers with 23 saws weigh 22,000 pounds and cost $2,000; and 24- 



123 



foot trimmers with 25 saws weigh 24,000 pounds and cost $2,200, (1916). 
Ihe installation cost is about $200 additional. These costs do not include 
l)eits or saws. . 

Saws 16 inches in diameter and 14 gauge cost $4.00; 18 inches in diame- 
ter and 13 gauge, $5.00; and 20 inches in diameter and 13 gauge, $5.75. 
'i hose 16 inches in diameter are most common. 

The size and cost of motors for pony trimmers is shown below. The 20 
h. p. motor is most common, since most of the trimmers have only 21 saws. 
The same motor also drives the feed table. 

COST OF MOTOR.S FOR POXY TRIMMERS (1910) 



Size of motor, 


Size of trimmer. 


Approximate weight, 


Cost delivered, 


h. p. 


No. of saws 


lbs. 


$ 


20 


21 


1,200 


SH9 


25 


23 


1,320 


380 


30 


25 


1,670 


427 



5foragePo//s . 



FeedTab/e- 



#>vfr K] 



\-^ur facer 
(Xnd 3izer 




Tn'mming 
ToMJe 



Cnnd/ng 

and 

Jo/nT/ng 

ffoom 



MaJcherl 



b Da 

I Marcher^ 



)0 



I 



Tran: 
Tab. 



Be/tC 



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^ 


AfouMen 




flo 


U) 


o 


LJ 


O 


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n/ ring Shelf. 



^Cuf-offSa^v 



Transfer 
Tab/e. 



124 



Fig. 45. Floor plan of 



Complete with base, pulley, and starting compensator. 

Smaller air compressors are required for these trimmers than for the 
large ones. The size usually employed is 9% x 9i/^ x 10 inches, and it 
costs installed about $350, including a 30 x 72 inch tank. 



COST OF TRIMMING 

The cost per thousand feet of trimming planing-mill products varies with 
the average width, thickness, and length of the pieces and also depends 
upon the general grade of logs from which the stock is taken. In general, 
it varies from 5 cents for machine work to 18 cents for hand trimming and 
from 2 to 4 cents additional for hand work where the trimmerman also 
grades the stock. The average trimming cost for the region is about 10 
cents and the average grading cost is 3 cents additional for stock graded. 



yraii or Crcuie Rurrivay 



Tr/mming 



Mr^€.^^ 



I 



Grading 
Tab/e ' 



Sort/no Tab/& 



^'WcLsfe Conveyor 



^ 



^ 



Jtorage 
Tab/e 



J -DecA Buj7cf//rrg /r'acAs 



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P^ 



M 



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^liUas/e Carn/eyur 




TrucJ< 




rrcLCk 



Btu/a/hg /00'KZ24- 



;las Fir planing mill. 



125 



BAND RIP SAWS 

Most rip saws are installed in the planing mill, although they are somt 
times placed in the sawmill or along the sorting chains for use in re-edging 
or ripping green stock. 

A rip saw can be obtained with or without a table. It might well be 
placed near the dry sorter, and used for ripping before the kiln dried .^tock 
is dressed. It would also have to be arranged in such a way that dressed 
pieces from the planing mill (ov shed) which need ripping could be put 
through it. The band rip saw usually has wheels from 40 to 44 inches in 
diameter, and it is designed primarily for light work. The guide is adjust- 
able to 20 inches at the right of the saw, which permits ripping very wide 
stock; and the rolls will elevate 14 inches. The table makes it possible to 
feed long pieces without trouble and without straining the saw and feed 
rolls. It is a general utility saw for all classes of ripping and can be used 
as a small resaw in emergencies. 

The saws are 4, 5, or 6 inches wide and the tooth space varies from l^^ 
to 2 inches. The prevailing space is about 1% inches. The length of the 
saws is from 20 to 22 feet. 

The saws are usually run at a speed of 10,000 feet per minute and the 
feed varies from 80 to 300 feet per minute, depending upon the thickness of 
stock being ripped. 

Band rip saw machines for 4-inch saws, equipped with 44-inch tables, 
weigh 6,200 pounds and cost (1916) $925; those which use 5-inch saws cost 
$1,000 (1916). Machines without the table weigh 5,200 pounds and cost, re- 
spectively, $850 and $925. These costs do not include saws or motors. 

Rip saws are usually equipped with 15 or 20 h. p. motors. The follow- 
ing power data, taken on a 44-inch machine fed 200 feet per minute, give an 
idea of their power demand. 

Input running light 7 Kw. 

Maximum sustained input 23.7 Kw. 

Average input throughout day 10.9 Kw. 

Band rip saws are usually operated by two men, a sawyer and a helper. 
The sawyer feeds the stock to the machine and the helper stands at the 
rear and takes it away. Sometimes the stock coming from rip saws in the 
planing mill is sent on to a sorting table, in which case the helper's ser- 
vices are dispensed with. 

SORTING AND BUNDLING PLANING MILL PATTERNS 

There are two methods of sorting and bundling the product in Douglas 
fir planing mills. The old method, generally employed in the smaller mills, 
is to sort and bundle behind each machine. In the larger and new mills, 
where the lumber from all machines is deposited upon a common transfer 
chain, the sorting and bundling are done at a common point. 

Where the sorting is done directly behind the machine, the trimming is 
also done there; and behind slow feed machines the trimmerman frequently 
grades or sorts the pieces, as well as trimming them on a cut off saw. 
The individual pieces are placed on saw horses and each grade and size is 
kept separate. When a proper number of pieces have accumulated in any 
pile, a bundler ties them in a package with lath cord, or wire, and places 
the bundle on a truck for delivery to the shed or car. One man can trim 
and sort, and another bundle and load upon trucks from 10,000 to 20,000 
board feet per day, depending upon the width of the stock, i. e., the number 
of pieces to be handled to the thousand. When fast feeds are used and 
large quantities of stock are delivered from each machine, two or more 
trimmerman and bundlers are required. Where very fast feeds are used, 
as many as seven men are employed to trim, grade, and handle the product 
from a single machine operating upon flooring and similar 4 inch products. 

126 



In the larger mills v/here the patterns from the various machines are 
sorted from a common transfer table, grading is done by an inspector, who 
marks the grade on each piece. The pieces are then segregated into proper 
piles by sorter men working along the table. Where the bundling racks 
are placed directly above the table, these men also act as bundlers. Where 
the racks are placed at one side of the sorting table, the tying is done by 
bundlers, who also place the bundles on trucks for delivery to the shed or 
cars. Sufficient trucks are used to eliminate the necessity of segregating 
by grades in the dry sheds. 

The cost of sorting tables depends upon their width and length and the 
number of chains. The figures given for light transfer tables will serve for 
estimates for the costs of these tables. They are usually from 10 to 12 
feet wide and long enough to permit one series of length segregations for 
each machine. 

The cost of sorting and bundling, exclusive of trimming, runs from 10 to 
15 cents per thousand board feet in large mills where the stock is handled 
in quantities by large crews. In small mills, where the pieces are handled 
behind each machine and where interruptions in the work retard the sorting 
and bundling, the cost runs from 20 to 35 cents. 

BLOWER SYSTEMS 

An important, but not expensive, feature of each planing mill is the so- 
called blower system, used to collect the shavings and deposit them in the 
fuel bins or burner. The volume of material which they are required to 
take care of is indicated by the fact that from 25 to 40 per cent (or from 
600 to 900 pounds per thousand board feet) of all the material fed into the 
planing mill machines is converted into shavings. 

The shavings are conducted from each cylinder and cutter-head on each 
machine by separate intake pipes, ranging in diameter from 6 inches for a 
slow feed matcher or moulder to 11 inches for the top cylinder of a fast 
feed planer. The side heads require intakes from 6 to 9 inches. The fan 
produces a pressure "suction" of from 4 to 5 oz. per square inch at the in- 
take, and this pressure is maintained throughout the system by keeping the 
total cross sectional area at the intakes equal to the cross sectional area of 
any of the receiving pipes. The cross sectional area of the exhaust usually 
equals that of the intake. 

The following table summarizes the cost, weight, size, and operation of 
fans installed in typical operation. The costs are for the fans alone, ex- 
clusive of pipes and motors. 

<O.ST OF F.VXS (lOKJ) 

Size of fan, Weight, 

in. ll)s. 

^ 35 X 11 540 

50 X 20 875 

80 X 32 2,400 

The cost of constructing and installing the pipes, including solder, rivets, 
labor, etc., is about 12 cents per pound, or roughly, from $150 to $250 per 
machine (1916), depci-nding upon the feed and size of the machines, dis- 
tances to bins and other variables. 

The weight most commonly used for piping up to 23 inches in diameter 
is 20 gauge; and for larger than 23 inches, 18 gauge. For intakes and el- 
bows, 16 gauge is used. Twenty gauge iron weighs 1.75 pounds and 18 
gauge 2.4 pounds per square foot. Therefore, a pipe 12 inches in diameter 
and made of 20 gauge iron would weigh 5.5 pounds per linear foot. The 
weight varies 0.5 pound per inch of variation in diameter. A pipe 23 inches 
in diameter and made of 18 gauge iron weighs 14.5 pounds per linear foot; 
and one 32 inches in diameter, 20.1 pounds, the weight being 2.4 pounds 
per square foot. This gives a variation of about 0.6 pound per inch of 
diameter. 

127 











Speed of 




Power 




Number 


feed on 


:ost, 


required, 


Speed, 


of 


macliines, 


$ 


h. p. 


R. p. ni. 


niacliines 


ft. per min. 


85 


12 


2,300 


1 


80 


135 


25 


1,300 


1 


150-300 


370 


35 


950 


3 


150-300 



CUTTER HEADS AND KNIVES 

The revolving cutting or surfacing parts of the planing and matching 
machines are called cylinders and cutter heads. The cylinders work on the 
top and bottom faces of the boards and the cutter heads on the sides. 
Where either the top or bottom faces require special moulding, additional 
cylinders called profile heads are employed. The relative position of each 
of these rotating parts with respect to the board and the direction of feed 
is shown in Fig. 52. 



T^P PROF/LE 




-3-6 



TOP CrL/fVD£R 



ci/Trf/fH£/iD 5/o£ curr€P hcad:> 
m. 



:l^ 



SO/^PO 




fforroAf pffor/Ls a/rrs/f //£/>£> 




0OTTOM Cri./AfO£R 
Fig. 52. Relative position of cylinders and cutter-heads in 
planing mill machines. 



The cylinders are made to take from 2 to 8 knives, depending upon the 
cylinder diameter and the rate at which the stock is to be fed. They ro- 
tate at from 3,000 to 4,000 revolutions per minute, and the boards are usu- 
ally fed at a rate which will produce 8 or 9 knife marks per inch. There- 
fore, it is obvious that the rate of feed depends on the number of knives to 
the cylinder and its r. p. m. The fast feed machines are therefore equipped 
with cylinders having the maximum number of knives. 

The side and profile cutter heads are equipped with small cutting parts 
called bits. These are of two types, circular and straight. 

The manufacturers of planing mill machines usually furnish an extra 
set of side cutter heads with each machine; but where a machine is used 
for a large variety of patterns, operators usually purchase extra sets of 
cutter heads for each pattern. The costs of these are approximately as 
follows, depending upon the style, as well as the number of bits. The 
higher prices are for the self-centering cutting heads. Extra bits for these 
heads cost from one to three dollars each, depending upon their size. The 
three dollar cost is for large bits used in tongue and groove work on .stock 
two inches thick. 

CO.ST OF CUTTRR HEADS (15>l<i) 



Bits in 


P 


rice per pair 
of heads, 


Bits in 


Price per pair 
of lieads, 


each head 
3 
4 
6 




% 
12 - 15 
15 - 18 
20 - 25 


each head 
8 
12 
16 


% 
25 - 30 
35 - 45 
65 - 125 



Profile cutter heads equipped with six bits, for beaded and V work 
(3-heads) cost $60 to $75 per set, for channel rustic or drop siding (1-head), 
$60 to $75 each; for novelty rustic (1-head), $100 to $125. Where the unit 
profile attachments are used, the costs are the same for the same work. 
Extra knives for the cylinder cost from 20 to 50 cents per inch, measured 
along the cutting edge. The usual cost is about 25 cents per inch (1916). 

Kiiives and bits cost from one to four cents per 1,000 feet of lumber, 
depending upon the size and character of the product made. The average 
cost is about two cents. 

128 



GRINDING AND JOINTING 

The edges of knives and bits in the cylinders and cutter heads must be 
kept sharp and true to insure a smootli high grade product. To keep them 
so requires special apparatus, either attachments to the planing mill ma- 
chines or separate machines placed in the grinding room. In the larger 
mills, it is the duty of one or more men to keep these cutting parts in con- 
dition for' all the machines, but in the small plants the planing machine 
operators do such work themselves. 

Grinding, the main sharpening operation, is done with special emery 
stones either wet or dry and shaped to give the proper form to the cutting 
edge. The long, straight, thin knives used in surfacing wide stock are usu- 
ally removed from the cylinders and ground separately, but the knives and 
bits in the side and profile heads are ground while in the head. 

After the cutting edges have been sharpened the cylinders or cutter 
heads are placed in a machine called a jointer and the edges evened up, so 
that each cutting part of each knife or bit revolves in the same radius. 
This insures a smooth surface and a uniform amount of work for each blade. 
Under ordinary conditions where the heads have to be jointed in the bear- 
ings of the jointing machine, it is extremely difficult to prevent slight un- 
evennesses in the cutting radius. Some of the planing mill machines of 
recent design are made so Chat the profile heads and bearings can be taken 
to the grinding room intact and sharpened and jointed just as they are used 
in the machine. This insures good work. 

Where a special grinding room is used, the equipment costs somewhat 
as follows: A knife grinder (30 inch), weighing 2,100 pounds, costing $400 
delivered; a cutter head and cylinder grinder and a cutter head jointer, each 
weighing 800 pounds, costing $150 delivered. 

About the same amount of power as is used in the sawmill file room is 
necessary in the planing mill grinding room. 

The cost of grinding and jointing planing mill knives when special men 
are employed for the work varies from 2 to 5 cents per thousand feet 
dressed, depending upon the size and character of the product. The average 
is probably close to 4 cents. 

DRESSED-LUMBER SHEDS 

storage sheds for planing mill products (Figs. 53 and 54) are an essen- 
tial part of every Douglas fir mill, unless the output is shipped in the rough 
or green condition. These sheds have two main purposes, i. e., to permit 
the keeping of a sufficient stock ot standard forms for immediate shipment 
and to store the surplus forms and grades manufactured in the preparation 
of orders. The latter used to be the chief function, but in recent years 
the desire to give better service has prompted many operators to enlarge 
their sheds in order to provide large stocks for immediate shipment. 

The sheds in the fir region are one story high and from 40 to 200 feet 
wide by from 100 to 700 feet long. The following tabulation gives the size 
of sheds and stocks common in mills of typical sizes. 

SHEDS AND STOCK 

Size of mill. Normal shed stocks, Size of sheds,* 

board feet annually board feet Square feet 

8,000,000 to 10,000,000 300,000 to 500,000 5,000 to 8,000 

10,000,000 to 20,000,000 500,000 to 1,000,000 8,000 to 15,000 

20,000,000 to 30,000,000 1,000,000 to 2,000.000 15,000 to 25,000 

30,000,000 to 40,000,000 2,000,000 to 2,500,000 25,000 to 30,000 

40,000,000 to 60.000,000 2,500,000 to 3,000,000 30,000 to 35,000 

60,000,000 to 75,000,000 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 35,000 to 40,000 



• Not including loading shed. 

The compartments in the main shed are 10 x 14 feet and have a capacity 
of from 18,000 feet of 10 foot material to 36,000 of 20 foot material each. 

129 



With an average of 27,000 feet, the 128 compartments will hold about 
3,500,000 feet of lumber; but the working capacity is not more than 
2,500,000 or about 75 board feet to each gross square foot of shed capacity, 
including alleyways. The lean-to will provide for about half a million feet 
of short length stock, or 50 board feet of lumber per square foot of tfttal 
inside area. 

The following detailed figures for the cost of completed sheds are repre- 
sentative: 

COST OP SHEDS 

Cost per square foot. 

High, Medium, Low, 

Part cents cents cents 

Foundations (floor area) 10 ."> 1 

Floors (floor area) 10 8 6 

Walls (wall area) 3 2.5 'J 

Superstructure (floor area) 12 10 8 

Roofing material (roof area) 5 4 3 

The so-called end piling method of stacking is almost universal among fir 
operators. The stock is much more easily handled, and the bundling cords 
are less likely to be broken or pulled off in handling. The floor space is 
divided into a sufficient number of compartments (Fig. 54) to permit rea- 
sonable segregation of the products, keeping the sizes usually shipped in 
the same car as close together as possible, so as to facilitate assembling 
for shipment. 

The short lengths are usually flat piled and sometimes placed in a"lean- 
to" at the side of the main shed. 

Gangways or aisles from 10 feet to 16 feet wide give access to the vari- 
ous compartments, except where shed handling is done by overhead crane or 
monorail. 

The shed work is not handled uniformly at fir mills, although the usual 
practice is to have one or two men unloading trucks and storing the 
product away, or loading trucks for shipment. In some plants the car load- 
ing crews go into the shed and select the material for each shipment. This 
system has the advantage of keeping the loading crew constantly occupied 
but tends to retard the loading operation. 

One man can unload by hand from trucks and store away, or take down 
and load on trucks, from 25,000 to 35,000 feet of planing mill products per 
day. The labor cost varies from 10 to 25 cents and averages close to 15 
cents for each thousand board feet handled through the shed. The usual 
contract price for this class of work is 12^/^ cents per 1,000. The cost de- 
pends upon the average size of the material and the distances it is carried 
by hand to the compartments. 

The shed repair costs are usually limited to i-eplacing the planking in 
the aisles and to other minor repairs. The repair of the planking is nat- 
urally a part of the transportation cost and may properly be figured as such. 

Some of the more progressive operators have developed a new method 
of tallying the lumber put into and taken from the shed. A slate or tally 
sheet is placed at each compartment and upon it the men tally each bundle 
or piece put in or taken from the compartment. In addition to forming a 
perpetual inventory, this system affords an accurate tally of the material 
handled and forms a basis for paying the men for work done by contract. 



130 



SHIPPING 

The shipping operation as classified at some plants includes taking down 
the lumber from piles in the yard and in the shed, but in this bulletin it is 
restricted to actual loading of cars or barges, grading and tallying, and 
handling cargo shipments on the docks. This is a rather arbitrary restric- 
tion and possibly open to some criticism, but it makes the subject easier to 
treat from the standpoint of investments, costs, and methods. 

GRADING AND TALLYING 

When material which has not been previously graded is loaded, an expert 
grader often inspects and tallies each piece. He ordinarily inspects the 
lumber at about the same rate as it is loaded, and the cost of grading and 
tallying varies from 8 to 20 cents per 1,000, depending upon the same vari- 
ables as does the loading. This expense is seldom actually incurred; for 
most of the head loaders are inspectors, and they inspect and tally the 
boards as they load them. 

Frequently, the inspection at the time of loading is only very superficial 
and made to serve as a check on previous work at the sorting chains or in 
the yard. In such cases the work is done by the loaders and the cost is 
negligible. 

LOADING CARS 

BY HAND 

When cars are loaded by hand, the work is usually done by crews of 
two. One man stands outside the car door and hands the material to the 
other, who stows it away in the car. Their work is made easier by the use 
of a stand, and a roller suspended in the door. The man outside lifts one 
end of the board from the truck, so that the middle portion rests on the 
stand and then swings the far end over until it rests on the roller and is 
easily shoved into the car. Some skill is required to stow the lumber in 
such a way that it will not shift around and become damaged en route and 
to utilize the full capacity of the car. 

When three-wheel or four-wheel trucks are used, the load can be backed 
into the door of the car, and one man working alone can load from 75 to 
80 per cent of the car as rapidly as two men can load in the usual manner. 
Two men are required for the remaining portion, since the man working in 
the gradually diminishing space must have the material handed to him. 

Loading is said to be easier if the half of the car farthest from the door 
is loaded as high as a man can reach before the lumber is placed on the 
entire floor of the car, and the other half built up to a point high enough 
to enable building the first half to the top. 

The loading platform is sometimes elevated 3% or 4 feet above the level 
of the car floor, so that the lumber can be slid down into the car and little 
or none of it need be raised even when the car is nearly filled to the top. 

The rate of loading is from 1,500 board feet per man per hour for planing 
mill products and dimension to 4,000 feet oi! timbers per man per hour, de- 
pending upon the size of material, accessibility of lumber and method em- 
ployed. 

The labor cost of loading cars by hand exclusive of grading, but includ- 
ing tallying, varies from about 10 to 30 cents, depending upon the size and 
kind of material, convenience in handling, and the method employed, as 
well as the wages paid. The usual costs for planing mill products and di- 
mension lumber are from 20 to 25 cents per thousand, and for timbers and 
ties from 10 to 20 cents. Contracts were in effect in 1916 on the basis of 
from 12 to 16 cents per 1,000 for the mill products and dimension and S 
cents for the timber and ties including tallying. 

131 



Lumber and nails are used in securing the loads on flat and gondola 
cars. Since only about one-third of the Douglas fir shipments are made in 
such cars, the cost is execeedingly low. About 200 feet of lumber is re- 
quired to the car, or eight board feet to the thousand. Figuring lumber and 
nails at $10 per 1,000, this amounts to 8 cents for each 1,000 feet loaded in 
such cars, or about 3 cents per 1,000 for the total shipments from the plant. 

The cost of tally sheets and other shipping forms is usually included in 
office supply costs. 

Shipping repair costs are negligible at plants when loading is done by 
hand; for there are few repair costs chargeable to shipping except those 
in connection with the transportation of the material to the cars, which are 
discussed under the subject of transportation. 

BY MACHINE 

Flat and gondola care are being successfully loaded by machine. Di- 
mension lumber is handled in units of from 1,500 to 2,000 feet and placed 
on the cars a unit at a time. Small timbers and ties are also handled in 
units, while large timbers are handled a piece at a time. 

A crew of three men is employed. One man operates the crane, one 
fastens a sling to the unit or tongs to the timbers, and the other unfastens 
these devices and supervises the loading. Loading can be done at the rate 
of from 10,000 to 40,000 feet per hour, depending upon the size of material 
and the skill of the operatives. 

Cranes properly arranged would be of considerable assistance in loading 
closed cars, by placing units partly in the car doors so that they could 
be reached easily and stored by a single loader. 

The labor cost of loading lumber upon flat and gondola cars by machine 
varies from 3 to 7 cents per thousand, exclusive of grading, depending upon 
the size of the material and the type of mechanism used. The cost of lum- 
ber and nails for securing the loads on flat and gondola cars is the same as 
for hand-loaded material. 

When the lumber is loaded by means of mechanical devices, repairs of 
such equipment must be charged to shipping. Such costs, where available, 
are given under the discussions of the machines. 

LOADING EQUIPMENT 
CAR DOOR ROLLERS 

Where two-men loading crews are used and it is necessary to hand the 
material from trucks into the car, the car door roller greatly facilitates 
loading. Such a roller costs $4.50 and comes in two sizes, 4 ft. 9 in. and 
5 ft. 9 in. For car doors of different widths the screws will prolong the 
distance 11 inches. 

CAR MOVERS 

Even where the cars are carefully spotted, it is often desirable to move 
them a few feet to facilitate loading, and for this purpose a car mover is 
very useful. The bit that bites on the rail of these movers is replaceable 
when worn out. The movers cost $5.00 each and the new bits 10 cents a 
piece. 

DOCK HANDLING 

The docks at cargo and combination cargo and rail mills are built of 
wood. Most of the piling is Douglas fir, although some is Sitka spruce or 
western red cedar. Creosoted piling is little used, since only in a very few 
cases have docks at Douglas fir mills been badly damaged by the attacks 
of teredo or other marine worms. 

The piling is usually placed on 10-foot centers, to insure safety under ex- 
treme loading and to make the docks as rigid as possible. The caps and 
stringers are ordinarily of 12 x 12 inch timbers and the joists of 4 x 12 
inch, although in a few cases 3 x 12 inch joists have been used. The 

132 



planking is eitlaer 3 or 4 inches thick. Good construction calls for 4 inch 
planking on the areas of traffic; and some builders use the heavy planking 
throughout, since the additional cost is not excessive and greater wear and 
rigidity are obtained. Wood blocks are coming into use to surface such 
docks and should give excellent satisfaction. 

The following table will serve as a guide in estimating costs of docks 
of various widths. An endeavor has been made to use conservative figures, 
and the table is supplemented with notes for use in modifying the calcula- 
tions. 

COSTS OF DOCKS, INSTALLED (1010) 

Cost per square foot of dock surface 
for typical widths, 
20 ft. 30 ft. 40 ft. 50 ft. 100 ft. 

$ $ * » J- 

0.197 0.187 0.181 0.178 0.172 

•206 .196 .190 .187 .181 

.225 .214 .208 .205 .199 

.219 .206 .199 .196 .188 

.232 .215 .209 .205 .197 

.246 .233 .224 .222 .215 

.236 .221 .214 .209 .200 

.245 .230 .223 .215 .210 

.264 .248 .241 .236 .228 

.262 .245 .236 .230 .220 

.271 .253 .245 .239 .229 

.289 .272 .263 .257 .247 



I^ongtli of 


Size of Thickness 


piling, . 


joists, of floor. 


ft. 




in. in. 




r, 


X 12 3 


30 


X 12 3 




I 4 


X 12 4 




3 


X 12 3 


40 


4 


X 12 3 




4 


X 12 4 




3 

4 


X 12 3 


50 


X 12 3 




4 


X 12 4 




3 


X 12 3 


60 


u 


X 12 3 




X 12 4 



Noie, — Lumber is floured at $10 per 1.000; labor and bardware at $8; piling 
at $2.40 for 30 ft.. $3.60 for 40 ft.. $4.50 for 50 ft., and $6 for 60 ft; driving at 
$1.75, $2, $2.25, and $2.50, respectively. Piles 10 ft. centers — joists 2 ft. centers. 
For costs of docks when creosoted piling- is employed, increase the above 
costs as follows: 30 per cent for 30 ft. piling. 40 per cent for 40 ft. piling, 50 
per cent for 50 ft. piling, and 60 per cent for 60 ft. piling. 

Cargo shipments are not loaded by the mill crew except in a few in- 
stances in which some of the large producers operate their own boats to 
California and Atlantic Coast points. Ordinarily, the lumber is transported 
to the docks and stored there until the arrival of the boat. Sometimes it 
is left on the trucks, but more frequently it is close piled along the dock 
within reach of the ship's tackle. 

The grading and tallying of practically all cargoes of fir are done by 
representatives of the Pacific Lumber Inspection Bureau as it is being 
assembled on the dock or at the time the shipment is being loaded. The 
Bureau then issues a certificate of inspection and a certified manifest. The 
cost of such inspection varies from 10 to 20 cents per 1,000, depending upon 
the time required in loading. The Bureau charges .$5.00 per day (1916) and 
expenses for each inspector. 

When the lumber is not left on trucks and must be close piled on the 
docks, the labor cost for handling varies from 5 to 20 cents per 1,000, de- 
pending upon the size of the material and whether or not mechanical devices 
are employed. At one of the large cargo plants where cost figures for dock 
handling were obtained, the labor cost was 16 cents per 1,000 for hand work. 
At some of the larger plants where cranes, monorails, etc. are used, the 
average cost is low; at other plants where the docks are small and the 
material must be piled to a considerable height by hand, the costs are very 
high. 

Where deep water vessels cannot dock close to the mill, the lumber is 
loaded upon barges and lightered to deep water. It is close piled on the 
barges in much the same manner as when it is stored on docks, and the 
costs of handling are about the same. 

The barges are usually from 25 to 30 feet wide and from 100 to 125 feet 
long and hold approximately 150,000 board feet of lumber when loaded to 
capacity. They cost from $5,000 to .1!G,000 each. The maintenance of these 
barges is negligible, and about the only extra expense in handling shipments 
In this manner is for tugs. Tugs powerful enough to tow the barges can be 
chartered for from $30 to $40 per day. 

133 



POWER 

Electric power is rapidly coming into general use in both the saw and 
planing mills of the Douglas fir region. Practically all of the larger and 
better class mills built in the last few years have been equipped throughout 
with electric motors. 

The more important reasons for increased use of electric power are: 
1. Electric mills require only two-thirds as much power as shaft-driven 
plants. 

2. Maintenance costs for belts and oils are considerably less than in the 
shaft-driven mills. 

3. The fire insurance rate is less. 

4. Machines can be placed and operated independently of one another. 
This increases efficiency through better arrangement and constant operation. 

5. Modifications in and additions to plant equipment can be made without 
great expense. 

6. While the power plant costs considerably more per installed horse- 
power, the saving in power required and in shafting, boxes, belts, etc., makes 
the net cost of electric mills (including motors) about the same as shaft 
driven plants. 

7. Independent engines and engineers for planing mills are not necessary 
at electric plants. 

POWER REQUIREMENTS 

Records taken at Douglas fir saw and planing mills indicate that from 4 
to 6 electrical horsepower are required per thousand feet of cut per day 
(10 hrs.) or from 30 to 45 kilowatt hours for each one thousand board feet 
of lumber produced. In addition, from 100 to 200 horse power of boiler ca- 
pacity are necessary for the dry kilns, the steam carriage feed, and the 
various steam cylinders about the plant. 

BOILER PLANT 

Most of the boilers at Douglas fir mills are of the horizontal tubular 
type. The usual size is 72 inches x 18 feet with a rated capacity of about 
150 h. p. and an actual capacity with Dutch oven settings of about 300 h. p. 
under the usual working conditions with from 100 to 150 pounds steam 
pressure. 

Another type of boiler which is slightly more expensive at first, but which 
has excellent steaming properties and low maintenance, is the vertical water 
tube boiler. 

FUEL 

The fuel is usually sawdust, shavings, and hogged waste. It is fed into the 
fire box by gravity. About five-tenths of one cubic foot of hogged mill waste 
is required for each horsepower hour developed. At circular mills from 55 
to 60 (from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds) cubic feet of sawdust are produced with 
each thousand feet of lumber and at band mills from 35 to 40 cubic feet 
(from 800 to 1,000 pounds). In addition, there are from 600 to 900 pounds 
of shavings produced from each 1,000 board feet of stock sent to the planing 
mill. The planing mill shavings average 8,500 B. t. u. per pound as fired 
and the sawmill waste about 5,000 B. t. u. as fired. The difference is due to 
the fact that the sawmill waste has about 50 per cent moisture, while the 
shavings have about 5 per cent. 

STEAM TURBINES 

The electric generators at Douglas fir mills are of the turbine type. The 
usual sizes of turbo-generator units are 500, 600, 750, 1,000, and 2,000 Kw., 
3 phase, 60 cycle, and 3,600 R. p. m. The voltage used in the early plants 
was 440, but experienced electrical engineers are now recommending 550. 

134 



The costs of these turbines are given later under the cost of complete power 
plants. 

MOTORS 

Squirrel cage motors are used for sawmill work wherever possible be- 
cause of their simplicity and strength. The data on motors in this bulletin 
refer to constant speed, alternating current, induction motors, unless other 
types are specifically mentioned. Practically all of the work is at constant 
speed: in fact one of the chief advantages in the use of motors is the ability 
to obtain a uniform speed. 

Individual motors are usually used for each machine and device, although 
frequently it is possible to group the units and drive several with one motor. 
This usually means a saving in initial cost, but it often increases the main- 
tenance cost for oils and belts and is likely to sacrifice good arrangement of 
equipment. In addition, group drive has in a small way the same drawbacks 
as shaft drive of any kind; i. e., the necessity of stopping all units to stop 
one. 

The total horsepower of all the motors required in a Douglas fir saw and 
planing mill varies from 10 to 13 for each thousand board feet of lumber 
produced in a 10 hour day, depending upon the type of mill and extent of 
the planing mill work. 

Owing to the intermittent and fiuctuating character of sawmill work, the 
load factors for the different motors vary from 2 per cent to as high as 90 
per cent. The average load factor is from 30 to 50 per cent. 

The size and weight of the motors used for each of the various machines 
are given with the description of the machine. 

COST OF INSTALLING WIRES AND CONDUITS 

The cost of installing the wires and conduits for electric motors and light- 
ing systems vary greatly with the voltage, the style of installation, the length 
of main and branch conduits, and similar factors. For the purpose of rough 
estimates the cost can be figured approximately at from 20 to 30 per cent of 
the total cost of the motors. 

POWER COSTS 

LABOR 

The labor cost for operating the power plant varies from 12 to 21 cents 
per thousand board feet, depending upon the size of the mill and the wages 
paid. The average is- close to 16 cents. The power cost is frequently pro- 
rated to the various departments in proportion to the service rendered each. 

REPAIRS 

The power plant repair cost for. both labor and material ranges from 3 to 
12 cents per thousand board feet of lumber cut, depending principally upon 
the age of the plant. It averages about 5 or 6 cents. 

SUPPLIES 

The various power plant supplies, such as oil, waste, babbitt, belts, gauge 
charts, and the like cost from 1 to 3 cents per thousand board feet of lumber 
cut. Where the oils and belts are charged against the sawmill direct, there 
is little or no expense for supplies at the power plant. 

135 



POWER PLANT INVESTMENTS 

Detailed estimates of the complete cost of power installations of typical 
sizes are given below. 

No. 1 

Power plant to supply steam to: 

1 500 Kw. high pressure condensing turbine. 

1 dry kiln — 200 boiler horsepower. 

1 sawmill^ — 100 boiler horsepower. 
Power house 50 x 48 x 24 feet (24 feet trusses), built of 

brick, concrete with steel roof $ 5,000 

Turbine room, 25 x 30 x 24 feet (24 feet trusses) 2,000 

Boilers, 700 boiler horse power $9,100 

Stack, sawdust deck, conveyor 2,600 

Brick setting- 3,100 

Foundation 700 

Feed water heater 875 

Feed pumps 350 

Piping 1,050 16,775 



1 500 Kw., high pressure, 3,600 R. p. m., 3-phase, 60-cycle 
turbine 

Foundation 

Exciter: 

Turbo exciter 

Motor generator set 

Turbine piping condenser equipment circulating pump 

Switchboard 

Power station wiring material 

Lighting transformers 

Installation of turbine and condensers, switchboard 



-No. 3 



10,500 


600 


1,150 


500 


2,900 


1,500 


150 


275 


1,000 



$43,350 



Power plant to supply steam to: 

1 1,000 Kw. high pressure condensing turbine. 

1 dry kiln, 200 boiler horsepower. 

1 sawmill, 100 boiler horsepower. 
Power house 50 x 60 x 24 feet, built of brick, concrete, with 

steel roof $ 6,000 

Turbine room, 25 x 30 x 24 feet 2,000 

Boilers, 1,050 horsepower $13,650 

Stack, sawdust deck, conveyor 3,900 

Brick 3,150 

Foundations 1,050 

Feed water heaters 1,312 

Pump (feed) 525 

Piping 1,575 25,162 



1 1,000 Kw., high-pressure turbine, 3-phase, 60-cycle, 3,600 
R. p. m 

Foundation 

Exciters: 

Turbo exciter 

Motor generator set 

Turbine piping condenser equipment, circulating pump, etc... 

Switchboard 

Power station, wiring material 

Lighting transformers : 

Installations of turbine, condenser, switchboard, etc 



No. 3 



14,900 


600 


1,200 


625 


4,500 


1,760 


200 


275 


1,100 



$58,372 



Power plant to supply steam to: ' 

1 2,000 Kw. high pressure condensing turbine. 

1 dry kiln, 200 boiler horsepower. 

1 sawmill, 100 boiler horsepower. 
Power house 50 x 70 x 24 feet, built of concrete, brick, with 

steel roof $ 8,500 

Turbine room, 25 x 30 x 24 feet 2,000 

Boilers, 1,400 horsepower $18,200 

Stack, sawdust deck, conveyor 5,200 

Brick setting 4,200 

Foundations 1,400 

Feed water heaters 1.725 

Feed pump 700 

Piping 2.100 33,525 

136 



^ r'.'^P. m'r-..'"^"'' pressure turbine. 3-phase, 60-cyele, 3.600 

Foundation 26 400 

Exciters: 900 

Turbo-g-enerator . 

T„.^°^°^. g'enerator set. .' .' .' .' 1.375 

SwUchbo^rS'"^;.:'^"^'^"^^'-^' ciro\ilating pump; etc;: ! ; i ! [ :::;:: 8.500 

Power station wiring- material ^-430 

Lig-hting: transformers. 275 

Installation of turbine, condenser. " switchboard .' : i .' [ [ l . ] ] ] [ [ [ ] J^ 



186.330 



liorMpower cafacuy!" °' "°"""- «"'n>ates are baaed o„ boilers or 350 boiler 
ilBt:^ S'?r" -- -°" -n-?r/--S "-"a.o„3 wo„M 



137 



REFUSE BURNERS 

The large amount of wood and bark waste produced in reducing logs to 
lumber makes large incinerators necessary where there is no market for 
such material in slab or hogged form. Practically all fir mills dispose of 
some of their waste in this way. 

There are several types of waste burners, varying in elaborateness and 
cost from an open pile or dump to large steel towers lined with brick and 
equipped with grates to aid combustion and spark screens to reduce the fire 
hazard. Some of them are equipped with water jackets to reduce the temper- 
ature of the shell and to provide hot boiler feed water. 

The capacity of these burners depends upon their diameter and the 
amount of grate area in each. They usually consume about two cubic feet 
of wood waste per square foot of grate surface per hour. The sizes ordinar- 
ily employed are shown in the following tabulation. 

SIZE AND COST OF STANDARD BURNERS (1916) 

(Steel, brick-lined) 









Cost erected on 


Size ef mill, 


Diameter, 


Height, 


Pacific coast. 


20-hour capacity 


ft. 


ft. 


$ 


25,000 to 35,000 


14 


40 


2,000 


40,000 to 50,000 


16 


40 


3,500 


60,000 to 75,000 


20 


60 


7,500 


100,000 to 135,000 


28 


65 


" 9,000 


150,000 to 200,000 


30 


70 


12.000 


200,000 to 300,000 


34 


85 


15,000 


500,000 to 600,000 


40 


90 


25,000 


700,000 to 800,000 


65 


110 


35,000 



The above costs are for substantially constructed cylindrical burners. 
Installations have been made for less. Concrete shell brick-lined burners 
of the same sizes cost from 40 per cent to 50 per cent less. 

A new style of burner has recently (1916) come on the market which 
costs less than the standard burner of like capacity and appears to give 
satisfaction. The principle is the same except that the base is made ex- 
tremely large and air is admitted, so that brick linings or water jackets are 
not necessary, owing to the great distance between the walls and the burn- 
ing refuse. 

Most burners require the services of a man to regulate the draughts and 
clean out the ashes. The cost per thousand feet of lumber cut varies from 
about one cent in large plants to about 5 cents in small ones. At the aver- 
age plant it is close to 2 cents. 

The cost of making repairs, such as replacing grates, relining with brick, 
or putting on new screens varies with the type and size of burner, the size 
of the mill, and the amount of work the burner is required to do. The cost 
per thousand board feet of lumber cut ranges from one cent to six cents. 
The average is not more than a cent and a half or two cents. 



138 



MACHINE AND BLACKSMITH SHOPS 

Every lumber manufacturing plant has a blacksmith shop and most of 
them some kind of a machine shop as well. Usually these are combined in 
the same building. Their function is to repair broken machinery and equip- 
ment, or to make new parts which can be made without elaborate equipment. 
Proximity to large cities has an important bearing on the size and equip- 
ment of repair shops, since those at large mills in isolated regions are re- 
quired to do much more difflcult work than those at the close-in mills where 
the difficult work can be sent to city machine shops. 

The principal pieces of equipment are forges, anvils, engine lathes, pipe 
threaders, drills, shapers, and planers. The investment in buildings and 
equipment, including stock used in repair work, varies from $2,000 to |15,000. 



139 



FIRE PROTECTION 
WATER SUPPLY 

Insurance underwriters require that the automatic sprinkler systems in 
modern sawmills be connected with water supply from at least two sources. 
Since more than one source Is seldom available, it has become common 
practice to install tower storage tanks as an extra source of water. 

The 25,000 to 50,000 gallon tanks are most common at fir mills, although 
100,000 gallon tanks are installed at some of the larger plants. The usual 
practice is to install 8,000 gallons of storage for each 100 sprinkler heads. 
The tanks are elevated from 25 to 30 feet above the highest sprinkler head 
to insure sufficient pressure for a good distribution of water from each head. 
The total height of tank supports is ordinarily from 65 to 85 feet. 

The cost of installing these water towers is shown in the following tabu- 
lation. The height is the principal factor of cost for a given size. 

COST OP WATKR TOWERS (1910) 



Capacity of tank, 


Number of 


posts, 


Size of posts, 


Installed costs 


gallon.s 








inches 


$ 


5,000 


8 






6x6 


500 - 1,000 


10,000 


9 






8x8 


1,000 - 1,500 


25,000 


12 






10 X 10 


1,500 - 2.000 


50,000 


12 






12 X 12 


2,000 - 3,000 


100,000 


21 






12 X 12 


3.000 - 3,500 



The water mains for sprinkling systems, fire hydrants, boiler feeds, and 
drinking purposes vary greatly in cost, owing to marked differences in the 
extent and elaborateness of such installation. The cost at plants where 
records are available indicate that the investment in pipe lines of this class 
ranges from $2,000 to $8,000. Distances, size of mains, and number and style 
of outlets all affect the total cost. 

AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 

Automatic sprinklers are coming into general use in the Douglas fir 
region and are looked upon as a necessary part of the standard equipment. 
This is because of the great saving in insurance premiums. The difference 
in insurance cost is about 50 per cent on the portion of the plant sprinkled. 




146 



Fig. 53. End elevation of dressed lui 



Detailed and specific instructions for installing sprinkling systems may 
be obtained from the National Board of Fire Underwriters, from whose reg- 
ulations (1916) were obtained the data here presented, which are offered to 
illustrate the effect of design upon cost. 

There are two types of automatic sprinklers in common use, i. e., wet and 
dry. In the first type all the main and branch pipe lines are constantly 
filled with water, under pressure. This type can not be used in the North- 
west because of the possibility of freezing. The dry type, which is adapted 
to use in Douglas fir mills, is usually operated as a wet system during the 
summer months and a dry system in the winter. In the dry system the 
branch pipes (subject to freezing) are filled with air and no water is ad- 
mitted to them except by an automatic valve, which operates only when the 
air is released by the opening of one or more of the sprinkler heads. 

The automatic sprinkler heads are set off by the action of heat, which causes 
the alloy plugs or stoppers to melt. The temperatures at which the various 
heads now in general use are melted are as follows: 155°, 165°, 212°, 286°, 
and 360° F. Those melting at low temperatures are most desirable and are 
i^enerally used because they respond quickly after a fire is started. They 
cannot be used, however, in dry kilns and similar places where temperatures 
in excess of 165° are common or are likely to be reached. The higher 
temperature heads, 286°, or 360°, are used in the dry kilns, since even the 
21'.^° heads might be released by unusual conditions in kilns ordinarily using 
temperatures considerably lower than 212°. 

In general, the distance between sprinkler heads does not exceed eight 
feet when measured at right angles to floor and roof joists and 10 feet par- 
allel to them. These are maximum distances for so-called uninterrupted areas. 
Since the girders on beams which support the joists (except when joists 
hangers are used) form barriers or partitions, the actual average number of 
square feet per sprinkler is always less than the maximum unless the girders 
are spaced on 10 feet (or multiples of 10 feet) centers. Furthermore, the 
sprinklers are staggered and the end heads on alternate lines ai*e not more 
than two feet from walls or partitions. In general, from 65 to 70 square 
feet is served by the average sprinkler. 




i I B g ^ ^ a a ^ 



designed for storing lumber on end. 



141 



Different sizes of pipe are used according to the nupnber of sprinkler 
beads supplied by the branch. 

SIZES OF PIPE FOR AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS 

Size of pipe. Number of heads, Size of pipe. Number of heads 

in. in. 

% 1 3 36 

1 2 31/2 55 
1% 3 4 80 
IVz 5 5 140 

2 10 6 200 
21/2 20 

Where practicable, not more than eight heads are placed on one branch 
line. 

The maximum number of sprinklers permitted on one dry valve is 500, 
while the recommended number is 300. This is to insure rapid exhaustion 
of air and quick delivery of water in case of fire. 

Automatic sprinkling systems, exclusive of the water and air sixpply sys- 
tems but including all necessary valves, gauges, etc., cost approximately as 
follows for mills of representative sizes: 

Size of mill, Cost of sprinkler installed, 

10-hour cut, (1916), 

bd. ft. $ 

35,000 3.500 

75,000 5,000 

100,000 7,500 

150,000 12,000 

200,000 15,000 

Rough estimates may also be obtained by calculating the cost at $6 per 
sprinkler head. 

CHEMICAL TRUCKS AND EXTINGUISHERS 

At many Douglas fir mills small chemical fire trucks which may be hauled 
by hand are placed at convenient points around the yard. They are made 
in two sizes, 25 gallons and 40 gallons. Each has a 50 foot hose and will 
throw a 50 foot stream, giving a working radius of 100 feet. The two sizes 
cost $165 and $185 respectively (1916). 

There are several types of hand fire extinguishers, their efficiency vary- 
ing with their cost. From fifteen to twenty-five of these are ordinarily 
placed about an average plant. They cost about as follows: 

COST OF HAjVD fire EXTINGUISHERS (1916) 

Form Size Cost 

Powder in tube 20 inches $ 1.00 

Powder in tube 12 inches .75 

Chemical 1 quart 8.00 

Soda 3 g-allons 12.00 



142 



WAGES OF MILL OPERATIVES (1912-1915) 

The wages of the operatives in Douglas flr mills range from $2 to $12 
per day. The wage for a given occupation depends upon the character and 
amount of work, the dexterity and judgment of the operative, and the scale 
or level of wages in effect at the time. All of these variables are covered in 
the range between the high and low figures in the following list. If used 
with judgment, these figures serve as a guide to daily plant costs for mills 
of given size and equipment. 



WAGES 



Worker High 
Pond: 

Pondman or boomman $3.25 

Helpers 2.75 

Sawmill: 

Foreman 6.00 

Log- hoist tender 3.00 

Deckman 2.75 

Scaler 3.00 

Rock sawyer 2.25 

Setterman 3.75 

Dog-g-ers 2.75 

Head sawyer (band) 8.00 

Head sawyer (circular) 6.00 

Tail sawyer (offbearer) 2.75 

Edg'erman 4.75 

Edg-er helpers 2.75 

Slasherman 2.50 

Trimmerman 4.00 

Trimmer helpers 2.75 

Timber trimmerman 3.00 

Filer (band) 12.00 

Filer (circular) 6.00 

Filer helpers 3.50 

Millwright 5.00 

Millwright helpers 3.75 

Oiler 3.00 

riean-up man 2.50 

Remanufacturing department: 

Resawyer (Roller) 4.00 

Resawyer (Gang) 3.75 

Helpers 2.75 

Re-edgerman 3.00 

Re-trimmerman 3.00 

Grading and sorting tables: 

Grader 4.00 

Grader's helper 2.75 

Tallyman 3.75 

Sorting men 2.50 

Trucking and transporting: 

Teamsters 3.00 

Tractor drivers 3.25 

Monorail operative 4.50 

Monorail helpers 2.75 

Truck chaser 2.50 

Truck mender 3.50 

Locomotive crane engineer 4.50 

Locomotive crane fireman 3.00 

Hook tenders 3.00 

Kiln drying: 

Kiln tender 3.00 

Filers 3.00 

Unpilers 2.75 

Marker or grader (Kiln stock) 3.00 

Sorting men 2.50 

Seasoning- and storage yard: 

Foreman 5.00 

Filers 3.00 

Unpilers 3.00 

Graders 4.50 

Tallymen 3.00 

143 



Daily wages 




Medium 


Low 


$2.75 


$2.50 


2.50 


2.25 


5.00 


4.00 


2.75 


2.50 


2.50 


2.00 


2.75 


2.50 


2.00 


L75 


3.50 


3.00 


2.50 


2.25 


6.50 


5.00 


5.00 


4.00 


2.50 


2.25 


4.00 


3.50 


2.50 


2.25 


2.25 


2.00 


3.75 


3.50 


2.50 


2.25 


2.75 


2.50 


10.00 


9.00 


5.00 


4.00 


3.00 


2.75 


4.50 


4.00 


3.50 


3.25 


2.75 


2.50 


2.25 


2.00 


3.75 


3.50 


3.50 


3.00 


2.50 


2.25 


2.75 


2.50 


2.75 


2.50 


3.50 


3.00 


2.50 


2.25 


3.50 


3.25 


2.25 


2.00 


2.75 


2.50 


3.00 


2.75 


3.25 


3.00 


2.50 


2.25 


2.25 


2.00 


3.25 


3.00 


3.50 


3.00 


2.75 


2.50 


2.75 


2.50 


2.75 


2.50 


2.75 


2,50 


2.50 


2.25 


2.75 


2.50 


2.25 


2.00 


4.50 


4.00 


2.75 


2.50 


2.75 


2.50 


4.00 


3.00 


2.75 


2.50 



Planing mill: 

Foreman 

Feedermen 

Tailers 

Bundlers 

Pneumatic trimmermen 

Grader 

Sortermen 

Filer and grinder 

Grinding room helper 

Ripsawyer , 

Ripsaw helper 

Lumber sheds and loading platforms: 

Foreman 

Stackers 

Unstackers 

Car loaders 

Graders and tallymen 

Power house: 

Chief engineer (Steam) 

Chief engineer (Electrical) 

Assistant engineer 

Day fireman 

Night fireman 

Blacksmith and machine shops: 

Blacksmith 

Blacksmitli helper 

Machinist 

Machinist helper 



4.50 
2.75 
2.75 
2.50 
3.75 
3.25 
2.50 
6.00 
3.00 
3.00 
2.50 



5.00 
2.75 
2.75 
2.75 
3.50 



4.50 
6.00 
3.25 
3.25 
3.00 



4.00 

2.75 
4.50 
3.00 



4.00 
2.50 
2.50 
2.25 
3.50 
3.00 
2.25 
5.00 
2.75 
2.75 
2.25 



4.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
3.25 



4.00 
5.00 
2.75 
3.00 

2.75 



3.75 
2.50 
4.00 
2.75 



.75 
.25 
.25 
.00 
.00 
2.75 
2.00 
4.00 
2.50 
2.50 
2.00 



4.00 
2.25 
2.25 
2.25 
3.00 



3.50 
4.50 
2.50 
2.75 
2.50 



3.50 
2.25 
3.75 
2.50 



MONTHLY SALARY 



Office force- 
Monthly salary High Medium 

Manager' $800.00 $500.00 

Superintendent 250.00 200.00 

Sales manager 250.00 200.00 

Secretary-treasurer' 200.00 175.00 

Book-keeper 125.00 100.00 

Time-keeper 90.00 75.00 

Stenographer' 75.00 50.00 

Shipping clerk 100.00 90.00 

Night watchman 90.00 85.00 

Messenger boy' 35.00 30.00 



Low 

$300.00 

150.00 

150.00 

150.00 

80.00 

60.00 

40.00 

75.00 

75.00 

25.00 



' Part of the time of these men is sometimes chargeable to logging. 



144 



TAXES 

PROPERTY TAX 

The general property tax laws applicable to lumber manufacturing plants 
in Oregon and Washington are essentialy the same as those of other states. 
The real and personal property is annually assessed at from 40 to 50 per 
cent of its value and the tax levies made on this basis. Payments are due 
semi-annually, in the spring and fall of the year succeeding the one to which 
the assessment applies. 

The annual tax on sawmills is extremely variable for plants of like capac- 
ity, primarily because of differences in the levies but also because of differ- 
ences in site of values and other investments. The variation in levies is in 
turn due to the revenues raised in the different counties and to special levies 
of towns and large cities. In the following table are given typical levies for 
urban, suburban, and rural properties. They include State, county, municipal, 
and school taxes. 

TVPIt'AL, TOTAL. TAX LEVIES IN THE DOUGLAS FIR RE(aO.\ 

Ijocation of property Total tax levy in nulls 

Hisli Medium I.ow 

Urban 50 30 20 

Suburban 40 25 18 

Rural 25 20 15 

In addition to the general property tax, there are numerous minor assess- 
ments, such as corporation taxes, factory and boiler inspection fees, auto 
licenses, and similar annual charges; but these do not amount to much. 

The amount of the Federal income tax varies so much from year to year 
that it is impossible to give any idea of its cost per thousand board feet or 
similar unit. It should not be overlooked, however, in calculating the net 
profit on lumber manufacturing operations. 

TAX COSTS PER THOUSAND BOARD FEET 

The total tax per thousand feet of lumber produced is even more variable 
from mill to mill than the levy. It differs through variations in site and 
plant investments per thousand feet of cut and through differences in the 
average quantities of logs and lumber on hand in proportion to the annual 
cut. The following table is given as a guide in estimating total taxes for 
average mills having on hand normal log and lumber supplies. The figures 
Include all taxes except the income tax and are based on constant operation of 
the plant. Where plants are not or cannot be operated throughout the 
year, the costs should be increased in proper proportion. Increases should 
also be made for abnormal investments in sites, plant, logs, or lumber, or 
for abnormal county tax levies. 

TYPICAL TOTAL TAX tOSTS PER THOUSAND BOARD FEET 

OF I-IMBER PRODUCED 

Location of plant Tax costs in cents per thousand feet of cut 

High Medium Low 

Urban 12 8 5 

Suburban 9 6 4 

Rural 6 5 3 



145 



INSURANCE 
FIRE 

The following table gives the rates of fire insurance on Douglas fir mills 
which are not equipped with sprinkling systems. 

RATES ON DOUGLAS FIR MILLS 

(Unsprinkled) 

Rates per $100.00 

Class L,ow Medium High 

Sawmill building- and equipment $2.50 $3.00 $5.00 

Dry-kiln building- '.. ^ 2.50 ... =4.00 

Dry-kiln contents 3.00 . . . 4.50 

Dry sheds and stock 1.50 2.00 3.00 

Yard stock 1.50 2.00 3.00 



' Brick, tile, or concrete. = Wood. 

In the table the insurance is based on $3.00 per hundred dollars of valu- 
ation as a standard, and increased or decreased from this amount according 
to the risk. 

Douglas fir mills receive insurance at 25 cents less than western red 
cedar or inland pine mills because of the less inflammable character of the 
mill dust and the humid atmosphere in the region. 

The usual distance required between yard and adjoining buildings is 200 
feet. From twenty to twenty-five cents is added for each 50 feet less than 
the required distance. For distances 50 feet or less, the rate is the game 
as that on the exposure, or adjoining property. Distances greater than 200 
feet take the 200 foot rate. 

Sprinkling systems, with two sources of water, reduce the rate from 33 to 50 
per cent, depending upon the construction of the frame. Open frame build- 
ings receive less reduction because of drafts. Mills having only one source 
of water for sprinkling obtain only a 25 per cent reduction over unsprinkled 
rates. 

Mills located inside of city limits gain from 25 to 40 cents per hundred, 
depending upon the nearness and type of city fire fighting equipment. 

Electric drive in sprinkled mills reduces the rate from 20 to 25 cents, 
and in unsprinkled mills from 40 to 50 cents. 

Mills having a night watchman and clock get a reduction of 50 cents, 
v/hile those having a watchman without clock gain only 25 cents. 

Mills cutting "dry" logs (operating without log pond) are assessed $1.00 
more because of increased dust and dryer condition of the plant. 

Reliable companies, with sprinkled mills, can insure their plant at 100 
per cent of the value and the stock at two-thirds of its value. 

Sprinkled mills must carry at least 70 per cent insurance in order to 
protect the insurance companies by allowing them a reasonable premium. 
Nonsprinkled mills are not allowed to carry more than two-thirds to three- 
fourths of the value of their plant. 

The lowest probable rate on a Douglas fir mill would be in the neighbor- 
hood of 70 or 80 cents. 

The actual cost of fire insurance per thousand board feet of lumber cut 
ranges from 8 to 25 cents. The average cost is close to 15 cents. 

LIABILITY 

The cost of liability insurance per thousand feet of lumber produced 
ranges from 6 to 12 cents, depending upon the character of the lumber 
product (i. e. how much labor it requires). The average is close to 9 cents. 



146 



COST SEGREGATIONS 

The methods of segregating the various items included in the total cost 
of producing Douglas fir products are not uniform among the operators. 
This has made it extremely difficult to obtain reliable figures of cost and 
to compare the costs at one plant with those at another. 

The following segregations are designed to make it possible to obtain 
the detailed costs of producing each thousand board feet of the various 
classes of lumber, such as rough, dressed, green, kiln dried, and air dried, 
and to compare the relative efficiency of operatives, equipment, and trans- 
portation. They will also serve as a guide in quoting on orders. 

An endeavor has been made to arrange the segregation in such a way 
that the individual items of cost can be combined to form the same major 
groups as those used by the mills which do not carry out refined accounting. 

At most plants, the yard account is a "catchall" to which many miscel- 
laneous expenses are charged. From the standpoint of accurate cost segre- 
gating, the usual yard items may be separated as follows: transportation, 
shipping, air-drying, dry sheds, docks, and platforms. These segregations 
are needed in determining the cost of handling any class of product which 
is not subject to all of the costs which in the past have been charged to 
yard expense. 

(1) Boom: The boom expense includes labor, repairs, and supplies 
necessary to keep the boom in operation for lumber manufacture. It does 
not include expense which assists in the delivery of the logs to the boom, 
in cutting the logs to length, or scaling for camp or buying records, since 
these are charged preferably to the cost of the logs. Boom expense de- 
livers the logs to the log slip. 

(2) Sawmill: The sawmill account includes all items of expense in 
sawing rough lumber. Timber surfacing and sizing, conducted at the saw- 
mill or on the sorting chains, are charged to surfacing and included in the 
planing mill account. Any resawing and ripping of rough lumber in other 
departments may be charged to the saw mill account or kept as a separate 
item. 

(3) Sorting: Sorting includes grading at the sorting chains and pulling 
lumber off them, and placing it on trucks or in units for transportation to 
the various departments. Where lumber is loaded directly from the chains 
upon dry-kiln trucks or upon cars for shipment, the expense for handling 
is charged to kiln-drying or shipping respectively. If lumber is "stuck" at 
the chains for air-drying, a portion of the sorting cost is charged to air-dry- 
ing, (piling). 

(4) Surfacing and matching: The surfacing and matching account in- 
cludes all planing mill charges and, as mentioned above, the cost of operat- 
ing and maintaining any timber surfacers and sizers at the sawmill. It 
takes the lumber from the trucks at the machine and replaces it dressed, 
graded, and bundled, if necessary, upon trucks for delivery to the shed or 
cars. 

Where accurate costs of these items for each class of product are de- 
sired, it is the practice to separate kiln-dried lumber which has to be graded 
and bundled from other dressed lumber, since there is a marked difference 
in the cost. 

(5) Kiln-drying: The dry-kiln account covers all expense necessary in 
preparing the lumber for the kilns and, after drying, putting it in shape for 
transportation to the next department. Supply and repair items incident to 
kiln-drying are charged to this account. At some plants care is taken to 
see that lumber used for stickers and bunks is credited to the lumber account 
and charged to the kiln account. 

147 



(6) Trucking or transportation: All movement of lumber from one de- 
partment to another is considered as a separate account, in order to permit 
proper distribution of this important expense among the various classes of 
product. Transportation includes Visages of teamsters, truck rustlers, and 
tractor drivers. The maintaining of roadways, tracks, and equipment is 
included and shown distinctly. Barn expense and other items entering into the 
cost of delivering the product from one part of the plant to another also 
are charged to this account. 

Any portion of the barn expense which may be charged properly to the 
delivery of retail lumber or wood is charged to such accounts. Where mono- 
rail hoists, cranes, or other trucking devices are used in piling or loading 
lumber, a proper portion of the cost is charged to such operations. 

(7) Air-drying: Air-drying includes taking the lumber from platforms 
or trucks, piling it properly for air-seasoning, and unpiling it for shipment. 
The unpiling for shipment is sometimes considered as part of the cost of 
shipping. Any final grading for shipment during the process of taking 
down, is charged to shipping. The cost of lumber used for cross pieces or 
stickers, pile covers, and drip boards, and other expenses necessary in 
maintaining the seasoning yard are charged to this account. Where lumber 
is "stuck" at the chains, a proper portion of the cost of sorting is charged 
to aii'-drying. Also when piling is done by monorail or crane, "air-drying" is 
charged with a portion of the transportation item. Any sorting necessary 
in the yard because of incomplete segregation on the chains is carried as a 
separate item or charged to sorting. It is not strictly an air-drying cost.' 

(8) Dry shed: The dry shed account includes all expense incident to 
stacking lumber from the trucks or floor and taking it down for shipment. 
The unpiling for shipment is sometimes considered as part of the cost of 
shipping. Any grading which is done in the dry shed, preparatory to ship- 
ment, is charged to "shipping." Trimming, grading, and bundling of dressed 
stock in the shed are charged to "surfacing." 

Where rough dry lumber is stored in sheds before surfacing or ship- 
ment, this operation is usually treated as a separate shed account instead 
of being grouped with the dressed shed costs. 

(9) Shipping: Shipping includes tallying, grading, loading, demurrage, 
shipping clerk's salary, and other expense necessary to prepare the lumber 
for shipment. It sometimes includes expense in taking down lumber in the 
yard or shed, and picking up lumber in the planing mill for direct shipment. 

It is frequently desirable to segregate loading upon cars from loading 
upon scows. 

It will be seen that the various items relating to the cost of preparing 
lumber for shipment have been treated as part of the cost of production. 
Some authorities rightly feel that this is not a part of the cost of produc- 
tion and that it should be treated as a separate cost, like selling. 

(10) Docks and platforms: Expenses in maintaining the docks and plat- 
forms, handling lumber on them, and rehandling of any kind which cannot 
be charged to any of the above items, are included in the dock and plat- 
form account. It may be desirable at certain plants to separate dock ex- 
pense from platform expense, where lumber is handled for both rail and 
water shipment. Where timbers and other forms are "stuck" on the plat- 
forms for "air seasoning" the extra cost may be charged to air-seasoning. 

(11) Power: The expense of operating and maintaining the boiler 
house, fuel house, and engine room is charged to power. 

The total expense for power, except plant items, is prorated to the vari- 
ous departments, including the kilns, in proportion to th§ horsepower or a 
similar unit of service rendered each. 

148 



Net receipts for light or power sold to outside parties may be credited 
to the power plant before the monthly prorating, or they may be treated 
as receipts for by-products and handled in the same manner as the wood or 
lath items. 

(12) Blacksmith and machine shop: The blacksmith and machine shop 
are usually self-supporting. Expense in operating and maintaining them is 
charged to the various other departments. The idle time is prorated in 
proportion to the time employed in work for each department. Some mills 
carry the machine and blacksmith shop as a separate plant and charge for 
such work as an outside shop would do. If there is a profit or loss at the 
end of the year, it is prorated to each item previously charged before the 
books are closed. 

In the case of the larger plants, the following segregations are usually 
chargeable to several or all of the operating departments in proportion to 
the service rendered. These segregations are used in order to insure pro- 
portionate charges for each of these classes of service to the various opera- 
tions. The percentage of most of these segregations usually remains con- 
stant, so that after it has been once determined the bookkeeper prorates it 
without further consultation until changes are made. 

(13) Steam mains. 

(14) Water mains (including sprinkler system). 

(15) Fire fighting equipment. 

(16) Blower system. 

(17) Electrical wiring and conduits. Electricity is included in power. 

(18) Fire insurance. 

(19) Industrial insurance. 

(20) Site. 

(21) Taxes. 

(22) Oils and grease: Oils, grease, gasoline, and other similar prod- 
ucts which are purchased in large quantities and used by the various de- 
partments are usually placed in a separate account and charged to each on 
a requisition basis. 

(23) Burner: The burner is properly part of the sawmill equipment, 
but it is usually desirable to keep this expense separate in order to determine 
the cost of destroying waste and thus permit calculating the relative value of 
various methods of waste utilization or disposal. 

(24) Wood: Both expenses and receipts for wood sold are usually en- 
tered on the wood account. This includes millwright expense, power, barn, 
and a portion of other items which are necessary to the manufacture and 
disposal of wood. The monthly or annual net gain on this account may be 
transferred to profit and loss. Hogged fuel which is sold is treated in the 
same manner. 

(25) Lath: Both expense and receipts for lath are usually entered on 
the lath account. This should include millwright expense, power, and a por- 
tion of other items which are necessary to the manufacture of lath. The 
monthly or annual net gain on this account may be transferred to profit and 
loss. 

(26) Office: All salaries and ofiice expense incident to lumber manu- 
facture may be charged to the oflBce account. This item also includes sun- 
dry expenses for supplies, postage, telephone, telegraph and the like. It is 
very seldom practicable to prorate the office expense to the various depart- 
ments. 

The total cost of each of the segregations is logically divided into the 
six following classes of expense: (1) operation — labor, (2) operation — 

149 



supplies, (3) repairs— labor, (4) repairs — materials, (5) plant — labor, (,b) 
plant — materials and equipment. The last two (5 and 6) are included to 
cover the construction accounts at new plants and improvement and re- 
placements at old plants. It seems desirable to separate supplies from re- 
pairs so as to determine the relative repair costs at large and small and old 
and new mills and the relative supply costs at electric and steam mills. 

Operation — labor includes all expense for labor and supervision needed 
to keep the plant in constant operation, barring accident. It includes ex- 
pense for filers, oilers, foremen, night watchmen and all outside men, as 
well as part of the time of any office men who have charge of outside work. 
The timekeeper is considered an office man. When operatives in any of the 
departments spend part of their time in repair work, such as repairing their 
own machines, the expense may properly be charged to repairs. The amount 
is ascertained by requiring the timekeeper to report the number of hours 
spent by each man on this kind of work. 

Operation — supplies includes expenditures for yarn, saws, saw teeth, files, 
emeries, and similar expendable material. A list of such supplies is given 
below to aid in a uniform classification. 

Babbitt, belts, band saws, belt laces, binder wire, books, brooms, cable 
carbon papers, car stakes, chalk, charcoal, circular saws, clips, clock charts 
coal, crayon, drills, emeries, files, forms, fuel oil, fuses, gaskets, gasoline; 
gauge charts, grease, horse feed, horse medicine, horseshoes, horseshoe 
nails, ink, kiln car bunks (wooden), knives, light bulbs, lumber (car stakes, 
stickers, etc., see also repairs), oils, packing, pencils, pens, pins, pipe lead, 
rope, rubber stamps, saws (band and circular), saw teeth, stationery, 
stickers, tractor batteries, tractor tires, tally cards, typewriter ribbons, 
washers (rubber, etc.), waste, yarn. 

Supply items, such as oils and greases, which are purchased in large 
quantities for the use of all departments, are usually carried as a separate, 
account, and prorated to the various departments by means of requisitions 
or other accurate records of distribution. 

Repairs — labor includes all labor used in making repairs except machine 
shop and blacksmith shop labor, which is ordinarily charged to the material 
furnished or repaired. Some mills include the millwrights' wages in the 
repair labor account, and prorate their time to each department, on this 
basis of the time employed in each. This appears to be good practice. 

Repairs — material covers both material that is bought and material ob- 
tained from the company's shops, which is charged to this account at cost. 
For convenience, it may be desirable to charge labor employed in the black- 
smith or machine shop to this account, and thus make it comparable to re- 
pairs made by outside parties when the labor for the repairs cannot be 
distinguished from the material. The following articles may be charged to 
repairs. 

Bar iron, bolts, boxes, chains, chain belts, collars, cutter heads, fire 
brick, fire hose, gauges, grate bars, grease cups, harness, instruments, lum- 
ber (other than stickers, bunks, etc.), machinery parts, metal washers, nails, 
uuts, oil cans, paint, pipe, pipe fittings, pulleys, rails, railroad spikes, roof- 
ing, screws, shafting, sheet iron, sprinkler heads, sprockets, spurs and gears, 
tools, valves. 

It is frequently advisable to distinguish between ordinary repairs and 
large replacements. Ordinary repairs are usually charged directly to the 
repair account, while large replacements or improvements which would 
affect abnormally the repair account for a given period are so handled as to 
afford an equitable distribution of their cost over different periods. 

Where this is not effected by means of a depreciation or sinking fund 
account, consistently maintained, to which the large replacement or im- 
provements are charged, that portion of the expense for large replacements 

150 



or improvements which increases the depreciated value of any permanent 
part of the plant is usually charged to the plant or investment account. The 
rest, or the depreciated value of the property replaced, is charged to opera- 
tion, either in the repair account or, preferably, in a separate account, to be 
prorated as before mentioned. Receipts for junk or equipment sold are cred- 
ited to the same account. 

The substitution of modern equipment for obsolete equipment may be 
handled in the same manner, but, as mentioned above, where the item is 
large enough to have an appreciable effect on the repair costs it is usually 
charged to a separate account, and the cost spread over a considerable 
period. 

Plant — labor may be charged with all expense for labor used in construc- 
tion or the portion used to increase the depreciated value of the plant, in 
making repairs, improvements, or replacements, as mentioned above, these 
being considered as an increase in investment. 

Plant — materials and equipment may be charged with all expense for 
construction material and additional equipment, as well as the portion of 
the expense which increases the depreciated value of the plant in making 
repairs. 

These expenses in the plant account, both in original and subsequent 
construction or installation, are itemized as far as possible to permit proper 
subsequent distribution of depreciation. 



151 



PLANT INVESTMENT SUMMARIES 

The following estimates were compiled as a reference for making approx- 
imate calculations of the total investment In lumber manufacturing plants. 
The range in the amount for specific items is designed to take care of the 
various factors which affect each item, such as capacity of plant, type and 
size of each unit, and method employed In the operation. Accuracy is not 
claimed for such figures; but, where properly used, they should serve as a 
guide to the cost of an existing or proposed installation. The figures repre- 
sent costs per board foot of daily (10 hr.) production. Those for the various 
departments, such as dry kiln, planing mill, etc., are based on the quantity 
of material daily put through each of these departments or steps in the 
operation instead of the total daily lumber cut in the sawmill proper. 



1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

5, 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 

21. 

22. 

23. 

24. 

25. 

26. 

27. 

28. 

29. 

30. 

31. 

32. 

33. 

34. 

35. 

36. 

37. 

38. 

39. 

40. 

41. 

42. 

43. 

44. 

45. 

46. 

47. 

48. 

49. 

50. 

51. 



SUMMARY OF PI.AAT l.\ VBSTMKNT.S 

(In cents per Ijoartl foot of 10 lir. cut effective 1912-1915) 

High. 

Item ceiit.s 

Engineering . 5.0 

Site (including clearing and fills).... 100.0 

Pond (additional to site cost) 20.0 

Sawmill Building (including founda- 
tions) 15.0 

Sawmill Annex (for resaws etc.) 5.0 

Machinery for 4 and 5 Installed 60.0 

Motors (or shafting and pulleys) for 

Sawmill 15.0 

File Room Equipment Installed 3.0 

Belts for Sawmill 5.0 

Saws 3.0 

Sorting Table 5.0 

Sorting Table Shed .6 

Timber Sizer — Rolls and Transfers.... .7 
Timber Sizer— Building and Substruc- 
ture .2 

Timber Distributing Rolls and Storage 

Skids 3.0 

Timber Loading Spur 2.0 

Tramways and Platforms (E.xcept yard) 8.0 

Cargo Docks (If cargo mill) 15.0 

Trucks 4.0 

Horses 4.0 

Tractors (If used in place of horses) 3.0 

Monorails ^ 20.0 

Overhead Crane ^ (F'or loading, etc.). 10.0 

Dry Kiln Buildings and All Ec|uipment ' 40.0 

Dry Kiln Cooling Sheds' 3.0 

Dry Lumber Sorting Table and Sheds ' 8.0 

Tramways to and in Yard' 14.0 

Lumber Pile Foundations ' 2.0 

Rough Lumber Shed ' 4.0 

Planing Mill Building' 5.0 

Planing Mill Equipment' 15.0 

Motors for Planing Mill' 7.0 

Blower System 3.0 

Dressed Lumber Shed ' 8.0 

Main Loading Spur 4.0 

Power House — Building 8.0 

Boilers, etc. Installed 25.0 

Engines or Turbines Installed 28.0 

Lighting Equipment 1 go 

Electric Motor Wiring i 

Water System 6.0 

Steam Mains 3.0 

Sprinkling System, etc 100 

Machine and Blacksmith Shop 7.0 

Burner 12.0 

Office and Equipment ^-0 

Supplies and Repair parts 10.0 

Log supply. 30.0 

Lumber stock 100" 

Bills receivable 95-0 

Bank balance 10-0 



ntermediate, 


I'OW,. 


cents 


cents 


3.0 


1.0 


25.0 


6.0 


6.0 


3.0 


12.5 


10.0 


3.0 


1.0 


50.0 


30.0 


10.0 


8.0 


1.5 


0.1 


4.0 


2.0 


1.5 


0.3 


3.0 


2.0 


.5 


.2 


.6 


.3 


.1 


.1 


1.5 


.5 


1.0 


.5 


5.0 


3.0 


10.0 


8.0 


3.0 


2.0 


3.0 


2.0 


2.0 


0.5 


18.0 


15.0 


7.0 


5.0 


24.0 


12.0 


1.5 


1.0 


5.0 


1.0 


12.0 


5.0 


1.0 


0.5 


3.0 


2.0 


3.0 


1.0 


12.0 


8.0 


6.0 


4.0 


2.0 


1.0 


4.0 


1.0 


2.0 


0.5 


6.0 


3.0 


18.0 


12.0 


20.0 


9.0 


5.0 


2.0 


5.0 


2.0 


2.0 


0.5 


8.0 


5.0 


4.0 


2.0 


8.0 


1.0 


2.0 


1.0 


8.0 


3.0 


18.0 


6.0 


90.0 


30.0 


75.0 


10.0 


5.0 


3.0 



» These items are based upon the amount put through the specific depart- 
ment or operation and not upon the total production. 

162 



DEPRECIATION 

Depreciation is the shrinkage in the value of fixed investments. In a 
lumber manufacturing plant it may be due to wear and tear, deterioration 
through rust or other factors affecting its physical condition, or to the ex- 
haustion of available timber supplies. 

Methods of calculating depreciation are not uniform among operators or 
accountants either as to the per cent to be written off annually or the rate 
to be applied to various kinds of improvements and equipment. 

The economic life of any portion of a plant of course depends upon 
specific conditions, but the low and high rates of depreciation shown below 
should cover conditions where the material receives reasonable care and 
is abandoned at the expiration of its natural life. 

DEPRECIATION 

Per rent of annual depreciation 

Investment I^ow High 

Buildings 5 10 

Machinery 7 12 

Transmission 5 10 

Boilers 10 15 

Engines 5 12 

In Forest Service timber appraisals the usual practice is to establish an 
anticipated wrecking or residual value for the various types of investment 
at the expiration of the cutting period and to distribute the difference be- 
tween the initial cost and the anticipated value equally over the term or 
upon each thousand feet of logs cut. 

The amount chargeable to each thousand board feet of lumber produced 
varies from about 25 or 30 cents in simple or long lived well maintained 
plants to as high as 70 or 80 cents in short lived operations or plants having 
a relatively high investment per thousand feet of lumber produced. The 
practice at many plants in the fir region is to place the amount arbitrarily 
at 50 cents per thousand feet without attempting to arrive at an accurate 
estimate by careful calculation. Such practice is obviously wrong, but it is 
better than absolutely disregarding depreciation as is sometimes done. 



153 



WORKING CAPITAL 

INTRODUCTION 

Working capital is the money which an operator must employ (in excess 
of his fixed investments) to meet current operating expenses and to cover 
funds tied up in logs, lumber stocks, mill supplies and repair parts, bills 
receivable, and a bank balance. It sometimes equals or exceeds the amount 
of the fixed investments, and for this reason is a more important factor in 
lumber manufacture than is usually supposed. 

Working capital is one of the most difficult items of lumber manufac- 
turing to cover in a treatise of this kind, first, because of the wide differ- 
ences in fir manufacturing and sales practice, and, second, because of the 
various methods of arriving at the amount of money involved at any one 
time, or as an average for the year. 

These two conditions make it necessary to limit the following discussion 
to the factors to be considered and the amounts involved in rather normal 
operations in the fir region. They also indicate the necessity for over con- 
servatism in estimating the amount to be required in a proposed operation, 
because of inability to predict within reasonable limits the character of 
product (per cent kiln dried, air seasoned, etc.), the condition and character 
of market to be met, terms of sale necessary, and the extent of discounting 
outstanding credits at the bank. The inclination to hold excessive stocks 
for speculative purposes, however, need not be considered when they are 
held under normal conditions in anticipation of an abnormal demand which 
is purely speculative. Holding to meet normal seasonal market changes 
would not fall in this class. 

FACTORS AFFECTING WORKING CAPITAL 

LOG SUPPLY 

The quantity and cost of logs held in reserve in the log pond, booms, 
etc., is the first item of the operation which has a bearing on the working 
capital. The normal log supply at fir mills is usually sufficient to last the 
mill a month, although at mills doing their own logging or located conveni- 
ent to large log markets, where logs are obtained on contract from a large 
and competent operator or several operators, the normal supply may be re- 
duced to the needs for a single week. Where logging is not carried on con- 
tinuously throughout the year, the computed average supply chargeable to 
working capital will be nearer the demands for two to four months. 

With logs at $7.00 per thousand (mill tally) and figuring that on the 
average a month's supply is kept on hand at all times, the working capital 
would amount to 17.5 cents per board foot of daily capacity, or $175 per 
thousand feet of daily capacity. Obviously, a mill doing its own logging 
has less invested in logs than one buying logs and paying cash, because the 
logs are figured at cost in both cases. But many log buying mills have no 
investment in a log supply, for logs are often cut and shipped before pay- 
ment is made. 

STOCKS ON HAND 

The character and amount of lumber in the yard and sheds are probably 
the greatest factors affecting working capital to be considered. The amount 
varies with the market and season of the year, because of differences in the 
time required to reach the desired shipping weight; and the character de- 
pends upon the class of logs, kind of trade catered to, kiln drying and air 
seasoning practice, and ability of the sales department to move the various 
undesirable grades and sizes produced in connection with sawing the product 
for which there is a normal demand. 

154 



Representative rail shipping mills usually have about 25% of their annu- 
al cut in the yard or the equivalent of three months' cut. Those catering 
to -yard trade primarily and cutting only a few structural timbers and ties, 
and those shipping green by rail or cargo will often have only a few weeks 
cut on hand. Assuming that the average cost of the lumber in the yard is 
$12 per thousand board feet and that there is an average of three months' 
cut on hand at all times, the working capital would amount to 90 cents per 
board foot of daily capacity, or $900 per thousand board feet of daily capac- 
ity. 

Mills selling most of their product to the cargo trade will ordinarily 
have on hand ten to fifteen per cent of their annual cut, while those selling 
mostly in rail markets have as much as thirty-five to fifty per cent in stor- 
age, principally to obtain the "underweights." 

SUPPLIES AND REPAIR PARTS 

The amount of working capital invested in supplies, such as extra bel's, 
lubricants, babbitts, etc., and small machinery repair parts, such as ch'iin 
links, sprockets, pulleys, shafting, kiln pipe and fittings, etc., varies grpatly 
with the kind of mill, i. e., character of product, relative size of planing mill, 
dry kilns, and kind of handling equipment. 

Figuring that the supplies and duplicate parts are equivalent to the 
average requirements for six months, the working capital required would be 
about eight cents per board foot daily capacity, or eighty dollars per 
thousand board feet of daily capacity. It is believed that these figures are 
more or less typical of the average fir mill. 

It should be borne in mind that large mills have proportionately less 
invested in supplies and certain standard repair parts in proportion to 
their cut than small mills. 

BILLS RECEIVABLE 

The amount of outstanding money depends primarily on the terms of sale, 
the tendency to discount railroad bills of lading, the percentage of cash and 
foreign (usually cash) business and similar factors, and because of these 
various conditions it is good practice to be exceedingly conservative in esti- 
mating the working capital required for this item. 

Figuring an average of two months cut represented in the bills receivable 
account and lumber valued at an average of $15.00 per thousand board feet, 
the working capital required would amount to 75 cents per board foot of 
daily production, or $750 per thousand board feet of daily production. 

In view of the fact that interest is lost on bills of lading discounted at 
the bank, and that the transaction is the same as borrowing money, tendency 
to discount should not be considered as actually reducing the amount re- 
quired for working capital, but rather as reducing the actual outstanding 
funds. 

The element of time which elapses between the shipment of the product 
and receipt of payment is one of the greatest variables requiring considera- 
tion. It depends principally upon the nature of the buyer. While there 
are many exceptions to the practices given below, they represent the policy 
in most of the transactions. 

1. Foreign buyers pay cash for the cargos of off-shore lumber shipments 
as soon as the boat is loaded. 

2. Most wholesalers and western lumber brokers either pay cash for 
their lumber or at least take advantage of the discount allowed for payment 
within fifteen days of the date of invoice. 

155 



3. Middle western and eastern purchasers who buy their lumber direct 
from the mills take from 15 to 90 days, or even longer, to pay for their 
purchases. The average period is probably 30 days. 

4. The average shipment of lumber to California by water is paid for in 
15 days, although the practice is not uniform. 

BANK BALANCE 

The bank balance carried by most fir mill operators is exceedingly small 
on the average, seldom exceeding a few thousand dollars more than the 
amount required to meet the pay roll; and since, from an accounting stand- 
point, the labor is performed before it is paid for and the payroll is covered 
by the working capital required for the stock on hand, this latter money may 
be disregarded. 



r \f/aid3\ fbj', No3 






/Yo 
4-9 






4-9 



Hooring 

No3fS 

/ xe 

4-9- 



F-/oor/na 

No ZABfTi 

/X6 

4-9- 



f^foorina 



^Shcli^es for Short L&r^fh3 



nbzsff' 

/X4 
4-a- 



noZiS 

/»4 



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N02&S 

1X4 

i6-/e'a.K' 



f-Cei/iag 

Nor 

.'14 

,•o:l^&/4■ 



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NoB-' 
I X4 
'6/8'{tZ0 



6dCakr>g 

rlo2aff 

I X4 

lo-zo- 



BdCaling 

1X4 
'0-ZO' 



y-di/ira 

NaJr' 
/X4 , 
^-9 



BdCeilinq 

No! 

i ''4 



BdCetffny 

No J 
i'4 
/0-20' 



G/iN6Wjir IX-Calina 
BATTera 



O&BoHani 

/oy2:&/4' 



OG-Boffeai 

Zi' 

i6:i8&.zo' 



HafBoHau 

J' 

io:iz'&'- 



Oe-BotMra 

'O- zo- 



J- 

16 ,'8 a 20 



I/-CU/M 

3X4 
4-9- 



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Nozasr 
iii4 
lO'ajz- 



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/4A/S 



V-Ca/iria 
NoZ&i 



G/snamiiY 

NoZ 
CeiuHe 



IX-Cal,r>a 

No3 ' 

i"> 
/oa /z 



y-Ceilioa 

rfo3^ 

'■4S 18' 



/6'a.io' 



V-Ccilinq 

i '4 

10 -ZO' 





1 Bd-Ceilirjg ^,f*ar*^,f*»ni3, 

No^ar /*>/hS\f/aSXS^ 

i»4 \ 'X6 \ /X6 1 

1 %:g ,4-9\4--9i. 


dd-Ce//ina 

Nozay 

/Oi/Z- 


Floorinq 

No /ye' 

/X6 

/o-zci- 


3d'Cef//ro 

NoZ&B 
S'4 

/4a/s 


^loonno 

fiozye 

1X6 

/0-/Z&U 


Bd-Cei/iag 

HoZ&B 

/6AZO 


FhorjM 

NoZfS 
1X6 
/6-/g&Z0- 


Od-Caling 

/oa. /z' 


nowina 

f/oB^S 
/X6 

io:/z'a:'4' 


No3 ^ 

i'4 

l4'x/3' 


f^loonng 

No3K 
/x6 

le.w&zo- 


Bd-Ca/ing 

No 3 

/6'&Z0- 


f^loor/r>a 

no3K 

me 
/O'&IZ' 


V-Cai/ir>g 

No3^ 
it4 
10- zo- 


f-loorir>g 

f/oS/'S 
/*6 
14- 


-~ 



i fioor/ng 

I /X6 

^ 4-9 



Fleering 

lioZ/v 
/ X6 
'O 



F/oormf 

ftoZfe 

1X6 

IZ 



GANSWAr 

f/a3 
Floop/»s 



F/ooiing 

NoZ/i 
/X6 
Af 



F/oor/ng 

noZ'=& 

/X6 
/6' 



Flooring 
NoZK 
/X6 

//r&zo- 



Ffooring 

ttoSfS 
l>6 

la'Btzo 



Flooring 

No3/'C 
1 16 
16 



Flooring 

Najya' 

/X4 
4-9- 



Flooring 

itoZfir 

1X4 

10' 



Flooring 

nozyG 

1X4 
IZ 



Flooring 

NoZyi 

1X4 
14' 



GAffSITAr 

No 4 
Fioat/ite 



Flooring 

Nozyi 

1X4 
16- 



Flooring 

DoZys 

1X4 
/8a:Z0- 



Flooring 

No 3 y if 

1X4 
/4 



Flooring 

No3y^ 

1X4 
lO'S^IZ- 



r 



CoyBRBD 



33t 



COVtRBD 

J3i 



Sloroae Shad Proper S36 ' ' lOO' , Gro^l Capacitr abou' 7 Million ,l/»orK,ng Capacily 3 Million 

~ - - - ■ "■ ■ ■— 



166 



Fig. 54. Plan of luml 



SUMMARIES OF COST OF PRODUCTION 



The following detailed estimate was compiled as a reference for making 
rough calculations of the total cost of producing different classes of lumber 
under a variety of conditions. The range in cost of a particular step is 
designed to take care of the various items which influence cost, such as 
efliciency, wage scale, method of pay, age of plant, and capacity of plant. 
The figures represent costs per thousand board feet of lumber produced. 
Those for the various steps in the operation, such as kiln drying and yard 
piling, are based on the volume of product involved and not upon the total 
product of the mill. 

COST OF PRODUCTIOX SUMMARIES 

(In cents per thousand board feet; Representative 1912-1915) 

Inter- 



Item 



1. 



2. 



Pond: 

a. Labor 

b. Supplies 1 

c. Repairs (Lab. and Mat.) 1- 

d. Supervision J 

Sawing- and Resawing: 
a. Labor 



b. 
c. 
d. 



Supplies 

Repairs (Lab. and Mat.). 
Supervision 



High, mediate, 
centa cents 


Low, 
cents 


9 5 
Included in 
Sawing and 
Resawing 


2 


90 65 

18 13 

73 30 

9 6 


50 
8 

7 
3 



■xu-ina'^ \ ' f^loorinq ^Ci.-fiU3fx'CC/luifict y-/>usf,c \y-//ijjtic ' ■ Finish ""i i ," Finiah ' i " Finia/f " ' ~ 

lnwii-f'/rj \/xs >/iJWiSi//j\ 1x6 I 1X6 1 1X6 i /x6 \/xj\/x5 ins \/xio ''rx4\tis ^/xs \/t/o\ inqs \B x4\£ <6\^'B\^xlO\^x'^\^x^^1x^ 



■4 



t F/oorina 

I / X^ 

1 4-9 



'•^ 



•f 

w 

4 

■./£' 

w 

4 

w 

4 
^o- 

Vina 
/// 
3 
10 



F/ooring 

Naiye^ 
/ix4 

IO-20' 



Mas 



A 



'LATFOPM 



Hocrino 

rtozre 



m-so- 



Ffoorina 

/iX4 
lO-ZO 



FJooriM 

Iix4 
10-20' 



Hoonog 

/ x3 
/0'-20' 



Flooring 

no2ys 

1X3 

jo-zo' 



F/ooring 

1X3 
10 '20- 



/to/OfffS 

/X6 
4-9 



Noioeps 

fioz&e 

/X6 
I0&/2 



f/a/otaj 

ixe 
I4'&I6' 



ttoxxas 

floBaS 
/X6 

/s'a:2o' 



Chl/iJific 

■Vol&B 

/X6 

l0:i2ac/4 



Ch/ftatK. 

rioeiB 

/x6 

16, 'm'ia> 



Chffia/ic 

/to3 

ixe 

io:iz'it/4' 



Ch./lusfic 

No 3 
1X6 



/toX>6aS 

//o3 
/ X6 

4-9 



/A>/06fiJ 

/lo3 

/X6 
lO'&IZ' 



Na6 
DaoP Sioins 

Ptisr/c 



\/ib^iUf,yo2a3\ 
I /X6 /x/z I 
4-9] 4-9^ 



MaJOtfiS 

No 3 
1X6 

/4&ie 



ftoJoeos 

No 3 
IS'&IO' 



y-HuafK 

/X6 
/o:i2'&l4' 



f-fiuific 

No2&d 

1 16 

I6:ie'&!0- 



no3 

ixs 

io:/z'&/4 



y-Jfia/,c 

Mo 3 

I xd 

Ic.'IS'&^O 



I Flnij^Fi/yijA ] JT/cpxnog ' 

I Ni>^s^/to2iM t/oyh:rfii/4 

I /i ' 6 iU x/2 x3-9\3-9\3-9\ 



Fi'niah 

Na^aB 

1X4 

10'- zo- 



Finiah 

noZ&B 

1X6 
/0'-2o 



Fmah 

NoZiB 
/X6 
10 -ZO 



GANSirxir 

J/o7 
F'mrSM 



Finish 

No2a3 
/X3 

lo'-zo 



F//tM 

/x/o 
IO'-20 



--FiniaA 

NoZ&B 
IX/2 
lO'-iO 



Mou/</in^ 



k 



i 


4-9-1 4-9- 


1 1 


i 




Finish 


Finish 






No 233 


Uo2&B 






/3X4 


2 X4 






lO'-ZO 


/0'-20 






FnaM 


Finish 






No2&B 


NoldB 






lixs 


2X6 






/O'-xO 


/0-20 






Fini3h 


Finish 


' 




NoZ&B 


/h2SJ 






lixo 


2X6 






IO'-£0' 


/O'-20 






Fi'ots^ 


Finish 






NoZ^B 


No2as 






/ixs 


2XIO 






lO'-ZO 


10-20 






Finish 


Finish 






no2AB 


No2&B 






Uxio 


2 ',</? 






10-20 


/0-20 






Fimsi 


Finish 






Nonets 


Do2&B 






Iixl2 


2X2 






!0'-Z0 


10'- 20 






Mou/dinyj 


Finish 

No2 
4 x-f 








10-20 





l/Jxlii/Ji/2'fiju 



Si^pping 

No2Sg 
/iX/O 
iO'-20' 



Sfepping 

No2a'B 
/Jx/2 
10'- 20 



C^/ieivnr 
No a 

Finish 
ANB 



N02&B 
Id X14 
I0-20 



SiBfipmy 

No-2BiB 
/> xio 
/0'-20' 



Sitfpiny 

No2&B 

ifX/2 

i0-20' 



^eflping 

No2a.B 
Ij xlJ 
/O-20' 



Spup 



nd allocation of products. 



157 



3. Sorting: (Sawmill) 

a. Labor 

b. Supplies ] 

c. Repairs (Lab. and Mat.) } 

d. Supervision j 

4. Piling: (Sawmill) 

a. Labor 

b. Supplies (Saws and Teeth) 

5. Oiling: (Sawmill) 

a. Labor 

b. Supplies (Oils and Grease) 

6. Transportation '■: (Including Laljor. Supplies 

and Repairs) 

a. Sawmill to Yard* 

b. Sawmill to Kiln* 

c. Sawmill to P. M.* 

d. Sawmill to Cars or Dock* 

e. Kilns to Dry Shed* 

f. Kilns to P. M.* 

g. Kilns to Cars or Dock* 

h. Yard to P. M.* 

i. Yard to Dry Shed* 

j . Yard Cars or Dock* 

k. Planing Mill to Shed* 

1. Planing Mill to Cars or Dock* 

m. Shed to Cars or Dock* 

7. Yard:* (by hand) 

a. Piling* 

b. Unpiling* 

c. Repiling* (based on total air dried).. 

d. Supplies* 

e. Repairs* (Lab. and Mat.) 

f . Supervision* 

8. Kilns* 

a. Stacking* 

b. Unstacking and Sorting* 

c. Supplies* 

d. Repairs (Lab. and Mat.)* 

e. Supervision* 

9. Planing Mill:* 

a. Feeding* 

b. Trimming* 

c. Grading* 

d. Sorting and Bundling* 

e. Sharpening Knives and Bits* 

f . Supplies* 

g. Repairs (Lab. and Mat.)* 

h. Supervision* 

10. Dressed Shed:* 

a. Stacking and unstacking* 

b. Supervision* 

11. Shipping: 

a. Grading* 

b. Loading and Tallying 

c. Supplies 

d. Supervision 

12. Burner: 

a. Labor 

b. Repairs (Lab. and Mat.) 

13. Power: 

a. Labor (Sawmill) 

b. Supplies (Planing Mill) 

c. Repairs (Dry Kilns) 

(Lab. and Mat.) (Transportation) 

14. Overhead (Office) 

a. Supervision 

b. Fire insurance 

c. Liability insurance 

d. Taxes 

e. Donations and Assessments 

f . Advertising 

g. Miscellaneous 

h. Supplies 

15. Selling: 

Salaries and Commissions, etc 

Discounts 

16. Depreciation 



28 


23 


21 


ncluded in 




Sawing and 






Resawing 




13 


9 


7 


10 


6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


5 


3 


2 


22 


10 


3 


10 


5 


2 


14 


6 


2 


18 


9 


3 


9 


4 


2 


10 


5 


1 


15 


7 


3 


18 


8 


3 


18 


9 


4 


22 


11 


4 


10 


5 


1 


14 


6 


2 


9 


4 


1 


25 


22 


17 


20 


15 


12 


3 


2 


1 


3 


2 


1 


4 


1 





6 


4 


2 


25 


17 


8 


35 


28 


15 


3 


2 


1 


15 


8 


2 


10 


5 


3 


20 


14 


5 


18 


10 


5 


4 


3 


2 


32 


20 


10 


5 


4 


1 


12 


10 


fi 


16 


7 


3 


8 


6 


2 


25 


- 14 


10 


3 


2 




20 


12 


8 


30 


18 


11 


6 


3 


2 


4 


3 


2 


5 


2 


1 


6 


2 


1 


21 


16 


12 


3 


2 


1 


12 


6 


3 


35 


30 


25 


23 


15 


8 


12 


9 


6 


12 


6 


4 


10 


6 


8 


10 


2 





5 


3 


2 


6 


3 


1 


75 


60 


50 


25 


15 


8 


80 


50 


28 



•Prorated from a total on basis of approximate relative distances. It in- 
cludes horse charges when they are used. 

* The items starred are based upon the amount put through the specific 
operation or sub-classification and not upon the total production. 

153 



LOG PRICES 

The cost of logs is an important item to operators who have to rely on 
the log market for all or part of their log supply. The tabulation below 
gives the average prices paid for the different grades of logs for each year 
from 1909 to 1918 inclusive. It is apparent that the prices fluctuate con- 
siderably. Prior to the war the normal prices were $6, $9, and $12, and 
only when lumber prices were good did the log prices advance to $7, $10, 
and $13. The prices maintained during the war were fixed by the govern- 
ment to stabilize the industry. 

PRICES OF DOUGLA.S FIR LOGS BY REGIONS ' 







1909 to 


1918, Incl 


usive 








GRADE 


No. 1 


GRADE 


No. 2 


GRADE 


No. 3 


Averag-e 


Columbia 


Puget 


Columbia 


Puget 


Columbia 


Puget 


for year 


River 


Sound 


River 


Sound 


River 


Sound 


1909 


$12.00 


$12.00 


$ 8.50 


$ 9.00 


$ 5.50 


$ 6.00 


1910 


13.00 


13.00 


10.00 


10.00 


7.00 


7.00 


1911 


12.00 


12.00 


9.00 


9.00 


6.00 


6.00 


1912 


12.50 


12.00 


9.50 


9.00 


6.50 


6.00 


1913 


12.75 


13.00 


9.50 


10.00 


6.50 


7.00 


1914 


11.50 


11.50 


8.50 


8.50 


5.50 


5.50 


1915 


11.00 


11.00 


8.00 


8.00 


5.00 


5.00 


1916 


12.25 


12.50 


9.25 


9.50 


6,25 


6.50 


1917 


15.25 


14.50 


12.25 


11.50 


9.25 


8.50 


1918 


19.00 


19.50 


15.75 


15.50 


11.50 


11.50 



' Compiled from monthly issues of the Timberman. 

The prices shown are based on log scale and are considerably higher 
than the net cost per thousand feet of lumber produced, because of the sur- 
plus or overrun of the lumber tally over the log scale. 



L59 



LOG GRADES AND YIELDS 

Owing to the marked difference in the quality or value of the various 
logs obtained from Douglas fir trees, it has been the practice for several 
years to classify or grade the logs with respect to their size and the char- 
acter of lumber they will yield. The following log-grading specifications 
indicate the general characteristics of the logs comprising each of the three 
grades in the principal log markets of the region. 

COLUMBIA RIVER AND PUGET SOUND LOG SCALING 

AND GRADING RULES (1918) 

No. 1 logs shall be logs which, in the judgment of the representative of 
the first party, will be suitable for the manufacture of lumber in the grades 
of No. 2 clear and better, to an amount of not less than 50 per cent of the 
scaled contents. Such logs shall be of an old growth, fine grain character, 
reasonably straight grained and for a space of six lineal feet, equi-distant 
from each end of the log, the grain shall not deviate from a straight line 
to exceed 1 inch to the lineal foot. No. 1 logs, from 12 feet to 32 feet in- 
clusive, in length, shall be not less than 30 inches in diameter inside the 
bark at the small end; and from 34 feet to 40 feet inclusive, in length, shall 
be not less than 28 inches in diameter inside the bark at the small end. 
Rings, seams or rot are not serious defects in a No. 1 log providing their 
location and size do not prevent the production of the required percentages 
in the grades specified. Knots, pitch pockets, etc., are defects which impair 
the grade only in proportion to their effect on the amount of clear In the 
log. 

No. 2 logs shall be not less than 12 feet in length, having defects which 
prevent their grading No. 1, but which, in the judgment of the representa- 
tive of the first party, will be suitable for the manufacture of lumber princi- 
pally in the grades of No. 1 common and better. No. 2 logs surface clear 
on two faces, or for one-half the circumference will admit the equivalent of 
two large knots to each twelve lineal feet. 

No. 3 logs shall be not less than 12 feet in length, having defects which 
prevent their cutting into higher grades and which, in the judgment of the 
representative of the first party, will be suitable for the manufacture of in- 
ferior grades of lumber. 

In order to ascertain the amount and character of lumber obtained from 
the three grades of logs in the Columbia River and Puget Sound log markets, 
the Forest Service made a series of mill scale or tally studies, the results of 
which are shown in Table 1. They do not show the final or net amount 
of lumber actually obtained from each grade of logs, for they represent the 
volume of rough green lumber, and allowance must be made for losses in 
volume and changes in grade during the seasoning, machining, and trim- 
ming operations. Studies are now in progress to ascertain the extent of 
these volume losses and changes in grade for the different classes of lum- 
ber products. 

160 



YIELU OF LUMBKR FROM THE THREE GRADES OF DOUGLAS FIR LOGS 



No. 1 Log's. 



Grade 



Columbia River Re 
Study No. 1 Study 
Original Re- Original 
Grade Grade Grade 



No. 1 V.G. 
No. 2 V.G. 
No. 3 V.G. 
No. 2 F.G. 
No. 3 F.G. 
No. 1 Com. 
No. 2 Com. 
No. 3 Com. 

Cull 

Per Cent of 
Total Tally 
Net Log Sea 

No. 1 V.G. 
No. 2 V.G. 
No. 3 V.G. 
No. 2 F.G. 
No. 3 F.G. 
No. 1 Com. 
No. 2 Com. 
No. 3 Com. 

Cull 

Per Cent of 
Total Tally 
Overrun ovei 



( Sound 9.2 

) Def 7.2 

Sound 8.0 

Def 3.3 

Sound 3.0 

Def 1.1 

Sound 44.6 

Def 49.7 

Sound 5.0 

Def 5.1 

Sound 26.0 

Def 25.6 

( Sound 2.4 

) Def 3.2 

( Sound 1.8 

) Def 3.2 

j Sound 0.0 

/Def 1.6 

(Sound 7.7 

i Def 10.0 

le Overrun over 33.0 



gion 

No. 2 Study No. 1 

Re- Original Re. 
Grade Grade Grade 

Percentages 



Puget Sound Region 



Study No. 2 
Original Re- 
Grade Grade 



J Sound 2.9 

I Def 1.7 

J Sound 2.4 

(Def 9 

J Sound 1.7 

( Def 1.9 

j Sound 32.9 

' Def 22.4 

Sound 11.4 

Def 7.6 

Sound 38.3 

Def 40.7 

j Sound 3.2 

) Def 12.2 

J Sound 2.8 

1 Def 12.6 

( Sound 4 

I Def 4.0 

(Sound 20.0 

( Def 40.9 

Net Log- Scale 38.0 



10.0 


6.6 


7.4 


7.9 


5.9 


7.2 


10.3 


6.3 


5.1 


6.3 


12.4 


7.8 


11.8 


13.3 


8.8 


4.0 


4.5 


4.3 


2.6 


11.5 


12.2 


2.8 


2.3 


2.8 


3.1 


2.4 


9.9 


10.8 


3.9 


1.3 


1.5 


.9 


1.0 


2.8 


2.9 


1.0 


.8 


.9 


.6 


.9 


.6 


.9 


46.6 


49.0 


55.6 


47.4 


49.5 


37.9 


43.6 


47.0 


39.1 


48.6 


48.4 


51.7 


40.3 


43.1 


5.8 


4.6 


5.2 


6.3 


4.7 


11.1 


6.2 


4.4 


3.6 


4.4 


3.9 


4.7 


4.9 


2.7 


21.9 


28.7 


22.5 


25.3 


30.8 


26.0 


21.9 


28.4 


41.6 


31.7 


28.1 


28.0 


18.7 


17.2 


1.3 


2.6 


1.2 


6.7 


3.9 


1.4 


1.2 


3.5 


4.4 


3.5 


3.1 


2.1 


5.5 


4.2 


1.7 


1.5 


1.6 


1.0 


1.6 


1.5 


1.7 


4.8 


1.9 


1.4 


.4 


2.3 


8.4 


7.5 


0.0 


1.7 


.5 


.2 


0.0 


0.0 


0.0 


1.8 


1.2 


.4 


0.0 


.1 


.5 


.4 


14.0 


6.2 


8.9 


6.8 


16.3 


12.2 


11.8 


20.4 


13.2 


13.3 


4.9 


17.2 


34.4 


32.6 


36.3 


24.4 


26.5 
No. 2 


13.7 
Logs. 


19.5 


20.4 


20.8 


2.5 


1.7 


1.0 


2.6 


1.8 


5.6 


2.8 


.9 


1.2 


.9 


4.1 


2.0 


1.4 


.6 


1.9 


.9 


.6 


1.1 


1.2 


3.1 


3.0 


.4 


.6 


.4 


2.1 


1.0 


1.5 


1.6 


1.5 


.4 


.3 


n 
. 1 


.8 


1.6 


1.8 


1.1 


1.3 


1.0 


.9 


2.8 


1.1 


.7 


35.9 


24.3 


15.0 


35.9 


30.5 


38.0 


39.4 


12.3 


15.9 


11.2 


41.7 


28.1 


27.5 


33.5 


9.2 


3.0 


1.9 


4.5 


4.4 


10.8 


11.2 


4.2 


5.4 


3.8 


5.8 


9.9 


2.6 


8.8 


40.8 


63.2 


73.3 


48.6 


54.5 


34.5 


35.0 


39.4 


67.6 


73.1 


34.4 


39.9 


33.9 


38.3 


3.8 


4.8 


6.3 


3.2 


3.7 


3.7 


2.8 


15.1 


5.3 


5.9 


4.3 


6.9 


12.6 


7.5 


2.5 


1.3 


1.1 


3.3 


3.0 


2.6 


2.6 


14.0 


1.9 


2.5 


6.4 


9.0 


17.5 


8.8 


.5 


.4 


.5 


.1 


.1 


.1 


1.4 


4.1 


.8 


1.2 


.3 


.4 


.9 


.4 


24.0 


28.5 


34.2 


40.8 


30.7 


11.8 


13.4 


26.6 


31.3 


39.6 


23.1 


12.7 


10.1 


7.3 


39.1 


19.8 


22.1 


20.6 


20.0 


21.3 


18.4 



No. 3 Logs. 

Vn 1 vr' (Sound 1 .0 .6 0.0 ,3 .1 .3 .1 

.NO. X v.vj. 1 Def 1.3 .5 1.6 0.0 1.2 .4 .4 .5 

v„ 9 vr' I Sound 5 1.5 .8 0.0 .9 .3 .4 .2 

Ao. i V.L.. \T)ei 4 .5 .4 0.0 .3 .1 .7 .6 

v„ q vr' (Sound 3 .1 .6 0.0 .3 .2 .4 .2 

AO. 6 v.u. j Def 1 .2 .1 0.0 .1 .5 .5 .3 

v„ 9 Tj, ^ j Sound 6.5 5.9 4.4 0.0 10.3 6.7 13.5 7.9 

AO. z J^.u. \T>ei 7.0 3.5 8.4 0.0 17.2 4.5 14.4 11.2 

^.„ n ^n j Sound 6 1.3 0.0 4.4 2.1 2.5 3.6 5.4 

AO. 6 i-.Lr. ^ jjgj ^ j^ jg (J Q 2.9 1.7 1.2 4.8 

v„ 1 r-«r^ (Sound 64.2 65.1 84.4 92.0 64.4 64.8 64.0 67.3 

i\o. 1 i-om. 1^ Def 50.2 15.4 75.7 99.0 51.8 54.2 40.4 35.2 

v^ o nr.^. (Sound 20.1 10.5 7.9 6.3 13.8 15.1 10.1 11.0 

i\o. - eom. I Def 19.0 25.5 6.9 0.0 10.8 16.6 13.7 17.5 

,,„ o nr. j Sound 7.3 15.2 .8 1.2 7.8 10.1 7.4 7.6 

i\o. 6 i^om. ) Def 18.6 49.2 3.8 0.0 15.7 22.0 27.7 28.5 

^„,, j Sound 4 .4 .5 .5 .1 .2 .3 .4 

^"'^ I Def 3.3 4.1 1.6 1.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.4 

Per Cent of (Sound 7.0 5.0 10.8 2.4 19.7 18.6 24.6 23.4 

Total Tally j Def 14.4 10.0 10.0 1.6 4.7 4.5 6.9 11.5 

Overrun over Net Log Scale 40.2 42.2 22.6 47.5 31.0 32.0 23.1 24.2 

Note: The Spaulding rule was used in the Columbia River studies and 
the Scribner Decimal C rule was used in the Puget Sound studies, but there is 

little difference in the two rules. Attempt should not be made to compare the 
overrun figures for the two regions. (See text.) 

161 



The column headings "Original Grade" and "ReKrade" aVp ,i«pH f^ ^. • 
nate the yield from the logs as graded by the scaler before they were cui 
It tSTctual ^. ''-'' ''^ ^-^ - — - -^ -- Jn'TnTnaVs-: 

diJin.^".^'?^* '^'°"''^ ""^ be made to compare the overrun figures for the 
dfferent studies because the net overrun depends largely upon the per cent 

It'^n^usr il"boTlfre1ior"° " -''-'^''' ^^^^ ^ ^^ 



162 



FIR LUMBER PRODUCTS 

Probably no other species of wood is made into a greater variety of 
sawmill products than Douglas fir. The detailed data here presented regard- 
ing fir lumber products can be considered in the main representative of the 
majority of rail mills in the region. It should be borne in mind, however, 
that many plants do not make all of the products mentioned, while others 
make additional products or greater or less amounts of the sizes, grades, and 
forms 'shown. The data are not representative of mills cutting less than 
100,000 feet per day, since many such plants are not equipped with dry kilns 
and make only a few forms. 

The various products and forms made can be classified into two main 
groups, those made from the clear or upper grades of lumber and those 
made from common or inferior grades. In the former group are flooring, 
ceiling, drop siding, rustic finish, stepping, car materials, and the like; in 
the latter are boards, shiplap, dimension timbers, bridge stringers, ties, and 
similar products. The proportion of each of these two great groups varies 
directly with the ratio of clear to common grades of lumber in the timber 
or logs under consideration. 

Although there is a direct relation between these two main groups of 
products and the quantity of clear and common material, the proportion of 
the upper or lower grades suitable for a given form of product is not uni- 
form, since the character of the grain of the wood, the type of knots, the 
presence of decay, and other physical characteristics have an important bear- 
ing on whether the wood is suitable for this or that product. For example: 
The better grades of flooring, stepping,, decking, etc., must be made from 
vertical grain material, and stringers, joists, and similar products should be 
free from decay, and from large or loose knots which may impair their 
strength. For this reason the proportion of the different forms is governed 
to a certain extent by the character of both the clear and the common lum- 
ber obtained from the logs. This accounts for the range in the percentage 
figures given for the proportion of the lumber suitable for each of the 
products. 

The grading, size, specifications, and patterns are taken from the rules 
issued by the West Coast Lumbermen's Association, January 1, 1917. 

FLOORING 

The clear grades of lumber suitable for floorings form from 20 to 35 per 
cent of the output from average logs, and about 35 per cent of all the clear 
is ordinarily put into this product. From the standpoint of both quantity 
and price obtained, it is the principal product made from the upper grades 
of fir. 

Flooring is manufactured and sold under two classifications, vertical grain 
and flat grain. Vertical grain flooring is sawed so that the annual rings lie 
at right angles or not less than a 45° angle to the top and bottom faces of 
the piece. In flat grain flooring the rings lie parallel, or nearlj' so, to these 
faces. Under average conditions 65 per cent of the flooring is sawed vertical 
grain and 35 per cent flat grain, the amount depending upon orders, logs, and 
sawing practice. 

Vertical grain flooring is preferred and commands a higher price than 
flat grain, as it is more resistant to abrasion. It is manufactured into the 
three following grades: 

"No. 1 Clear — Vertical Grain, 3, 4, and 6 inch. Shall be well milled on 
face, must have perfect edges and be practically free from all defects. 
Bright sap showing not more than one-third of face half the length of piece 
will be admitted. Angle of grain not less than 45 degrees. 

1G3 



"No. 2 Clear — Vertical Grain, 3, 4, and 6 inch. Shall be well manufac- 
tured. Angle of grain not less than 45 degrees. Will admit of slight 
roughness in dressing, from one to three small, close pitch pockets or equiv- 
alent defects. 

"No. 3 Clear — Vertical Grain, 3, 4, and 6 inch. Angle of grain not less 
than 45 degrees. Will admit of roughness in dressing; slightly discolored 
sap, two small knots or four small pitch pockets, any two of which may be 
open. It is generally understood that this grade will admit such defects 
or combination of defects as will not impair the utility for cheap floors. 
A piece 12 feet or longer otherwise as good as No. 2 may have a defect 
that can be cut out and the piece laid with a loss of not more than 2% 
inches in its length, providing the defect is 4 feet or more from the end of 
the piece." 

Flat grain flooring is manufactured into the following three grades: 
"No. 2 Clear and Better — Flat Grain, 3, 4, and 6 inch. Shall be well man- 
ufactured; will admit of slight roughness in dressing. Either of the follow- 
ing defects also permitted with the above: Three close pitch pockets, not 
to exceed two inches each in length; one sound and tight smooth pin knot, 
or the equivalent of combined defects. 

"No. 3 Clear — Flat Grain, 3, 4, and 6 inch. Will admit of roughness in 
dressing, slightly discolored sap; two small knots, or four small pitch pock- 
ets, any two of which may be open; or the equivalent of combined defects. 
A piece 12 feet or longer, otherwise as good as No. 2 and Better, may have 
a defect that can be cut out and the piece laid with a waste of not more 
than 2y2 inches in its length, providing the defect is 4 feet or more from 
the end if the piece. It is generally understood that this grade will admit 
such other defects or combination of defects as will not impair its utility 
for cheap floors and sheathing. Hemlock permitted, but not more than 15 
per cent. 

"No. 4 Clear — Flat Grain, i. e., ll-inch thick or %-inch thick, and, or Vert- 
ical Grain, i. e., ig-inch thick, 3, 4 and 6 inch, will admit of numerous small 
or several medium or large pitch pockets; excessive heart and, or, sap stain; 
a limited amount of rot; small knots, imperfect manufacture; a few scattered 
worm holes or a small knot hole if located 3 feet or more from the end of 
the piece. A very serious combination of above defects not permissible in 
any one piece. Hemlock, in any quantity, permitted." 

Flooring is manufactured into the following sizes: 

"% X 3, % X 4, )4 X 6-inch shall be finished % x 214, Sy^ and 5%-inch 
face; 1 x 3, 1 x 4, 1 x 6, V. G., and 1 x 4 F. G., shall be finished M x 214, 3% 
and 5% face. 

1 x 6 F. G., shall be finished % x 51/8 face. 

1% X 3-inch, 4-inch and 6-inch shall be finished li'u x 214-inch, 3i/4-inch 
and 5%-inch face. 

1% X 3-inch, 4-inch and 6-inch shall be finished to lf« x 2%-inch, 314-inch 
and 5%-inch face. 

Flooring is tied into bundles to facilitate handling for shipment, 1x3- 
inch, 1^/4 X 3-inch and 1 x 4-inch flooring having 6 pieces to the bundle, and 
6-inch flooring 4 pieces to the bundle. It is usually sold in lengths which are 
multiples of one foot from 4 to 9 inclusive and multiples of 2 feet in lengths 
above 10 feet. 

The percentages of each size and grade ordinarily manufactured are 
shown in the following tables: 

164 



APPROXIMATE PERC ENTAGE OF EACH liEJVGTH OF FLOORING 
PRODUCED FROM TYPICAL, SIZES AND GRADES '■ 





















Length 


n Feet 








Size 




Grade 


4 


5 


6 


7 


s 


9 10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


All 




















Percentage 












X 


3 


1 V.G 


... 0.7 


0.4 


0.7 


0.2 


0.1 


0.3 17.8 


23.4 


10.0 


34.9 


11.5 


100% 




X 


4 


1 V.G 


... 2.8 


1.6 


4.6 


3.0 


8.0 


3.7 13.1 


20.3 


22.2 


20.2 


0.5 


100% 


11-4 


X 


4 


1 V.G 






2.1 


2.0 


3.6 


1.8 8.5 


26.6 


26.2 


27.3 


1.9 


100% 




X 


4 


2 V.G 


'. ■. ". 1.2 


1.3 


3.7 


2.3 


6.4 


2.0 10.5 


19.6 


22.9 


26.5 


3.6 


100% 


1^ 


X 


4 


2 V.G 


... 0.1 


0.1 


1.4 


1.6 


5.6 


0.9 6.0 


17.8 


24.4 


40.6 


0.6 


100% 




X 


4 


3 V.G 


... 3.5 


1.5 


3.4 


2.3 


7.1 


4.9 11.8 


20.3 


21.7 


22.6 


0.9 


100% 


1'^ 


X 


4 


3 V.G 


... 0.6 


0.7 


3.7 


2.0 


4.0 


1.8 9.0 


20.0 


21.8 


32.8 


3.6 


100% 




X 


4 


2 & Btr. P.G 


. . 1.5 


1.2 


3.4 


1.5 


6.2 


1.8 10.7 


21.8 


27.0 


24.3 


0.6 


100% 




X 


6 


2 & Btr. F.G 


. . . 1.6 


0.2 


4.2 




7.3 


. 14.8 


22.0 


27.2 


22.7 


0.0 


100 'J: 




X 


4 


3 Clr. F.G. 


... 5.0 


2.6 


3.6 


0.2 


5.0 


1.2 11.3 


18.7 


28.0 


24.3 


0.1 


100% 




X 


6 
a 


3 Clr. F.G. 
on No. 4 F. G. 


... 1.9 
floorinj 


. 3.5 
? were 


not 


5.5 . 11.5 
available. 


26.1 


26.0 


23.6 


1.9 


100% 


iDat 





APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE OP FLOORING MANUFACTURED INTO THE 

VARIOUS SIZES AND GRADES; ALSO PERCENTAGE 

OF EACH SIZE BY GRADES 

GRADES 
2 VG 3 VG FG 3 FG Total.s 



Sizes 
Inches 

1 X 3 



X 4 



K 

I 



Per cent 

Index 
All Fig. 



All 
1 



X 6 



114 X 4 



{All 

( All 
I 11/4 

6 inch V.G 



X 3 in. 

Fig-. . . 
X 4 in. 

Fig. . . 
X 6 in. 

Fig. . . 
X 4 in. 



1 VG 

0.1 
25.0 

14.9 
20.9 



1.1 

22.2 



0.2 
50.0 

34.2 
49.4 



2.7 
il.6 



3 VG FG 

Percentages 
0.1 

25.0 



9.5 
13.4 



1.4 
26.2 



9.4 
13.0 

14.6 

60.8 



2.3 
3.3 

9.5 

39.2 



0.4 
100.0 

70.3 
100.0 

24.1 
100.0 

5.2 
100.0 



Note: 1x6 inch V.G., li^i 
manufactured in too small amounts 
available on No. 4 F.G. Flooring. 



X 3 inch, and 6 inch V.G. and F.G. Flooring are 
to show in this table. Data were not 



DROP SIDING AND RUSTIC 

Drop siding and rustic are second only to flooring in importance as fir 
products from clear lumber, practically all of which is suitable for these 
forms. Approximately 30 per cent of the clear grades are made into them. 

They are made in three grades as follows (1917): 

No. 2 Clear and Better — 4, 6 and 8-inch. Defects based on piece 6 inches 
wide, 12 feet long. Shall be well manufactured. Slight roughness in dress- 
ing admissible; will allow three sound and tight pin knots or four tight pitch 
pockets or their equivalent of combined defects. Hemlock permitted but not 
more than 15 per cent. 

A piece 14 feet or longer may have one defect located 4 feet or more 
from the end, that can be cut out by wasting not more than li/^ inches of 
the length, provided balance of piece be practically free from other defects. 

No. 3 Clear— 4, 6 and 8-inch. Will admit of roughness in dressing; slight- 
ly discolored sap; three sound and tight knots not larger than 1-inch in 
diameter; or five small pitch pockets, any three of which may be open; a 
small number of pin worm holes; or the equivalent of combined defects. A 
piece that is otherwise as good as No. 2 may have a defect that can be cut 
out by wasting not more than 2% inches in the length of the piece, provid- 
ing the defect is 4 feet or more from the end. Hemlock, in any quantity, 
permitted. 

No. 4 Clear — 4, 6 and 8-inch. Will admit of numerous small or several 
medium or large pitch pockets; excessive heart and, or, sap stain; small 
knots; a couple of small knot holes; imperfect manufacture; pin worm holes 
or a few well scattered grub worm holes. A very serious combination of 
above defects not permissible in any one piece. Hemlock, in any quantity, 
permitted. 

165 



Sizes of Fir Drop Siding- 

% X 6-inch, No. 105, finished i",v x 4%-inch face, i^-inch rabbet; % x 6- 
inch, No. 106, finished -/'^ x Bi/g-inch face, 1 x 6-inch, No. 105 finished % x 
4%-inch face, i/^-inch rabbet; 1 x 4-inch, 6-inch, and 8-inch, No. 106, finished 
% X 314-inch, 5%-inch, and 7-inch, 14-inch tongue. Standard lengths are 
multiples of two feet. 

Size of Fir Kuistic 

% X 6-inch and 8-inch Channel, finished ,'n x 4%-inch, and fn x 6%-inch 
face, i/^-inch rabbet; 1x6 and 8-inch channel, finished % x 4%-inch, and 63^- 
iuch face, %-inch rabbet; % x 6 and 8-inch V and center-V, finished i^^ x 4%- 
inch and 6)4-inch face, i/^-inch rabbet; 1x6 and 8-inch V and center-V, fin- 
ished % X 4%-inch, and 6%-inch face, i/^-inch rabbet. Standard lengths are 
multiples of two feet. 

1x6 inch forms 99:9 per cent of all drop siding and rustic, of which 75.4 
per cent is No. 2 Clr. and Btr., 20.0 per cent is No. 3 Clr., and 4.6 per cent 
is No. 4 Clr. 

Drop siding and rustic are made in even lengths and are priced in groups 
of 4 feet, 6 feet, 8 feet, and 10 feet and longer. 



PER (■K\T OF 


EA( H LENGTH. DROP SIDING AND RUSTIC 














lyength in 


Feet 












4 


6 


S 


10 


12 14 


16 


18 


20 


All 


Size 


Grade 










Percentages 








1x6 


2 & Btr. . .. 


2.4 


.5.(1 


8.5 


10.1 


21.7 28.3 


21.5 


2.1 


0.4 


100% 


1x6 


3 Clr 


2.2 


4.9 


9.1 


12.1 


21.0 24.8 


22.4 


3.0 


0.5 


100% 


1x8 


3 Clr 






0.8 


11.8 


33.1 27.1 


24.1 


1.8 


1.3 


100% 


1x4 


4 Clr 


2.6 


7.i 


10.. 5 


16.6 


21.1 14.0 


21.0 


7.7 


. 


100% 


1x6 


4 Clr. 




0.9 


1.1 


1.5 


16.2 14.7 


64.1 


1.5 


. 


100% 



CEILING AND PARTITION 

Ceiling and partition are manufactured from the clear or upper grades of 
lumber, of which about 10 per cent is ordinarily put into them. A larger 
proportion of the clear lumber is more suitable for ceiling and partition 
than for flooring. From 25 to 40 per cent of the cut is used for this purpose. 

These products are manufactured into three grades as follows (1917): 
"No. 2 Clear and Better.^Flat Grain and, or, Vertical Grain, 3, 4 and 6 
inch. Shall be well manufactured; will admit of slight roughness in dress- 
ing. Either of the following defects also permitted with the above: Three 
close pitch pockets, each not to exceed two inches in length; one sound and 
tight smooth pin knot, or the equivalent of combined defects. Hemlock per- 
mitted, but not more than 15 per cent. 

"No. 3 Clear— Flat Grain and, or. Vertical Grain, 3, 4 and 6 inch. Will 
admit of roughness in dressing; two small knots; slightly discolored sap; 
or four small pitch pockets, any two of which may be open, or the equivalent 
of combined defects. A piece otherwise as good as No. 2 may have a defect 
that can be cut out and the piece laid with a waste of not more than 2% 
inches in its length, providing the defect is 4 feet or more from the end of 
the piece. Hemlock, in any quantity, permitted. 

"No. 4 Clear — Flat Grain and, or. Vertical Grain, 3, 4 and 6 inch. Will 
admit of numerous small or several medium or large pitch pockets; exces- 
sive heart and, or, sap stain; small knots; imperfect manufacture and, or, 
a few well scattered worm holes; and one small knot hole if located 3 feet 
or more from the end of the piece. A very serious combination of above 
defects not permitted in any one piece. Hemlock, in any quantity, permitted. 

"In all grades of Ceiling wane on the reverse side, not exceeding one-third 
the width and one-sixth the length of any piece, is admissible, providing the 
wane does not extend into the tongue." 

166 



Size of Fir Ceiling: 

"Ceiling shall be worked to the following: 

% X 3-inch, 4-inch and 6-inch finished A x 214-inch, S^i-inch and SVs-inch. 
Vz X 3-inch, 4-inch and 6-inch finished i'c x 2 14 -inch, 3i/4-inch and SVg-inch 
face. 

% x 3-inch, 4-inch and 6-inch finished fo x 214 -inch, 314-inch and SVs-inch. 
1 X 3-inch, 4-inch and 6-inch finished },\ x 2i4-inch, 314-inch and Si/g-inch. 
Standard lengths are multiples of one foot. 

Sizes of Fir Partition 

1 X 4 and 6 inch finished }i x 3 14 -inch and SVs-inch face. Standard 
lengths are multiples of one foot. Partition 4 or 6-inch, shall be graded 
from the poorest side. 

Ceiling and partition are manufactured in lengths which are multiples of 
one foot from 4 to 9 feet inclusive, and multiples of two feet above 10 feet. 
A large number of mills, however, cut only even length pieces. Ceiling and 
partition are bundled 6 pieces to a bundle. 

AI'PROXIMATK VKRt KIMTAtJK OF ( KILIXG AND PARTITION MANU- 

FAf'TliRKD INTO THK VARIOl'S SIZKS ANIJ GRADES; 

ALSO PER CENT OF EACH SIZE BY GRADES 

Grades 

Size, Per eent, No. 2 Clr. & Btr., No. 3 Clr., Total. 

Inches Index Per rent Per cent Per cent 

, ) All Clp:. & P 0.2 .. ^^0.2 

•/g X 4 ( % X 4 100.0 . . 100.0 



., , . All Clg. & P 7!».8 12.8 02.6 

% X 4 f % X 4 83.8 16.2 100.0 

, ) All Clg-. & P 4.!) . . 4.9 

1 -"^ 4 I 1x4 100.0 .. 100.0 

, j All Clg-. & P 2.3 . . 2.3 

1x6 [ 1x6 lUO.O .. 100.0 

Totals 

All Clg-. & P 87.2 12.8 100.0 

Note: Other sizes of ceiling and partition are usually manufactured in too 
small amounts to be included in this table. Data are not available on No. 4 
F.G. ceiling and partition. 

PERCENTAGE OF B.\CH LENGTH 

Length of Feet 

Size, 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 

Inches Grade Percentages All 

% X 4 2 & Btr. .. 0.9 2.6 6.4 11.0 17.6 21.4 26.1 14.0 . 100% 

% X 4 2 & Btr. .. 5.1 9.9 13.3 14.4 18.7 19.8 17.1 1.7 . 100% 

1x4 2 & Btr. .. 0.5 2.2 7.5 17.4 27.5 19.0 21.4 4.3 0.2 100% 

1x6 2 & Btr. .. 0.7 2.2 8.8 28.7 17.5 12.8 29.3 . . 100% 

% X 4 3 Clr 2.5 6.9 11.1 18.7 23.0 17.7 16.7 3.4 . 100% 

SILO STAVES 

From 25 to 45 per cent of the lumber from average logs will make silo 
staves, which are manufactured from clear and select common stock. Al- 
though the amount is not uniform in different mills, about 10 per cent of the 
clear lumber is ordinarily used for this product. 

Silo stock is made into two grades, as follows (1917): 

No. 2 Clear and Better — Must be square edged and water-tight the full 
length of the piece. Will admit any one of the following: Three sound and 
tight small knots; or three small dark colored knots, if not extending through 
the piece; one medium pitch pocket or its equivalent of smaller pitch pock- 
ets, providing pitch pockets do not extend through the thickness of the 
piece; small, fine season checks; or the equivalent of combined defects. In 
absence of either one of the above a piece may have one larger season check 
if not over i',v inch in open width, not over 12 inches long and extending not 
more than half way through the piece. Bright sap no defect. Warped or 
crooked pieces not admissible. Based on piece 12 feet long. 

Selected Common — Must be square-edged and water-tight the full length 
of the piece. Will admit of any number of sound and tight standard knots, 
or pitch pockets, not over 6 inches long that do not extend through the thick- 
ness of the piece. Bright sap no defect. A slight amount of stained sap 
admissible. 

167 



The staves are made from pieces 2x6 inches and are designed to be used 
for silos having a diameter of 16 feet. 

This product is almost entirely manufactured from No. 2 Clear and Better 
lumber, the per cent of Select Common used being so small as to be practi- 
cally negligible. 

All lengths from 2 feet to 40 feet are manufactured in multiples of two 
feet, and prices vary with the lengths. The proportion of the various lengths 
ordinarily obtained is shown below. 

PERCENTAGE OF EACH LENGTH 



Feet 


Per cent 


Feet 


Per cent 


Feet 


Per cent 


2 


0.2 


14 


2.7 


26 


3.3 


4 


.3 


16 


3.1 


28 


7.3 


6 


.9 


18 


8.3 


30 


14.2 


8 


1.6 


20 


9.0 


32 


18.7 


10 


3.7 


22 


6.7 


34 


2.3 


12 


5.3 


24 


12.4 







FINISH 

Douglas fir finish is manufactured entirely from clear lumber, from 5 per 
cent to 20 per cent of the mill run supply being suitable for this purpose. 
About 4 per cent of the clear lumber is normally used. 

Finish is manufactured in three grades, as given below (1917), and in a 
wide variety of sizes. Though usually cut flat grain, it is also manufactured 
into vertical grain stock. 

Selected Flat Grain— 1, I14, lYz and 2 inches thick, 4 to 12 inches wide. 
Shall be free from sap and all defects, on face and edges, and selected for 
beauty and character of grain. 

No. 2 Clear and Better — Flat Grain and, or Vertical Grain, based on 1 x 
8"-12'. Rule to apply proportionately on narrower or wider and thicker 
stock. Will admit of slight roughness in dressing. Will allow 5 per cent 
straight splits not longer than the width of the piece; or a small amount of 
stain on the reverse side of the piece. In addition to one of the above, three 
small tight pitch pockets, each not to exceed two inches in length will be 
allowed, or the equivalent of combined defects. 

No. 3 Clear — Flat Grain, and, or. Vertical Grain, 1, l^^, li/^ and 2 inches 
thick, 4 to 12 inches wide, based on 1 x 8" - 12'. Rules to apply propor- 
tionately on narrower and wider and thicker stock. Will admit 5 per cent 
straight splits not longer than the width of the piece; medium torn grain, 
heavy torn grain in two or three places; season checks that do not go 
through; stain covering one-fourth of the face of the piece. With any one 
of the above, one of the following or their equivalent of combined defects 
will be allowed: Four small pitch pockets or their equivalent of larger 
pockets; one standard pitch streak; four small and tight sound knots; two 
1-inch knots or their equivalent of pin knots, or other defects. A piece 14 
feet or longer may have a defect located six or more feet from the end of 
the piece that can be cut out by wasting not more than 1% inches in length, 
provided balance of piece be practically free from defects. 

Sizes of I'ir Finish 

Thickness SIS or S2S, 1-inch to %-inch; li/4-inch to li's-inch; 1%-inch to 
1^-inch; 2-inch to 1%-inch. Widths if dressed one or two edges; 4-inch, 
5-inch and 6-inch, finished to 3V2 inches, 4^^ inches and 514 inches; 8-inch, 
10-inch and 12-inch, finished to 7% inch, 9^/4 inch and 11^/4 inch; 14-inch and 
16-inch, finished to 13 inches and 15 inches. Standard lengths are multiples 
of one foot. 

Finish is sold surfaced on one or both faces, one or both edges, or any 
combination of faces and edges. Most commonly it is surfaced on both faces 
and both edges. It is also sold rough. When rough, it is sold both green 
and kiln dried, but when surfaced, is customarily sold dried. 

168 



APPROXIMATE PERCEXTAGE OF FIXISH MAUFACTFRED INTO 
VARIOUS SIZES AND (GRADES 











G 


rade 












Grai 


<> 










No. 2 Clr. 


No. 3 Clr.. 










No. 2 Cli 




No. 3 Clr.. 


Slzt 


, 




&Btr.. 








Size, 




& Btr., 






Inches 




Per cent 


Per cent 






Inches 




Per cent 


Per cent 


1 


X 


4 




9.4 


2.5 




1% X 12 




1.5 




.4 


1 


X 


5 




4.3 


1.1 




2 


X 2 




1.5 




.4 


1 


X 


6 




11.9 


3.2 




2 


X 4 




2.9 




.7 


1 


X 


8 




13.5 


3.6 




2 


X 6 




4.8 




1.2 


1 


X 


10 




8.7 


2.3 




2 


X 8 




3.2 




.8 


1 


X 


12 




10.0 


2.6 




2 


X 10 




1.3 




.3 


1 


X 


14 




.1 






2 


X 12 




1.9 




.5 


11/4 


X 


4 




.4 


.1 




2 


X 14 




.1 






IV* 


X 


5 




.1 


, 




3 


X 4 




.1 




, 


IV4 


X 


6 




.8 


.2 




3 


X 8 




.1 






ly* 


X 


8 




.7 


.2 




4 


X 4 




1.9 




.h 


11/4 


X 


10 




1.0 


.2 




T 


otals 




80.2 




19.8 


IVote: 


M 


eth 


ods 


of manu 


facturing fl 


nish vary to 


such 


an ext 


ent 


in the per 


cent of No. 


2 


Clr. 


and Btr 


and No. 3 


Clr 




made that r 


eliable 


figures oil the 


proportion of 


sach 


size by 


grades are 


not 


available 


; the 


above 


are 


estimates. 



APPROXIMATE AMOUNT WHICH CLEAR LUMBER ^VIL,l, PRODUCE IN 

FINISH BY LENGTHS 



Size 
Inches 



X 3 
X 4 
X 5 
X 6 
X 8 
xlO 
xl2 
^ xl4 
iy4X 4 
l^x 6 
l^x 8 
1^x10 
1^4x14 
2x2 
X 3 
X 4 
X 6 
X 8 
X 3 
X 4 
X 5 
X 6 
X 8 
xlO 
xl2 



IV4.X 6 
114x10 
114x12 



2 
X 4 
X 6 
X 8 
xlO 
xl2 



Grade 

2 Clr. & Btr... 1 
2Clr. &Btr. .. 
2 Clr. & Btr... 
2Clr. &Brt. .. 1 
2 Clr. & Btr... ">■ 
2 Clr. & Btr.. . 
2 Clr. & Btr.. . 
2 Clr. &Btr.. . 
2Clr. &Btr. .. 4 
2 Clr. &Btr.. . 
2 Clr. &Btr.. . 
2 Clr. &Btr. . . 
2 Clr. &Btr.. . 
2 Clr. & Btr... 2 
2 Clr. &Btr. . . 
2 Clr. &Btr.. . 
2 Clr. &Btr... 
2 Clr. &Btr.. . 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 

No. 3 Clr 



Length in Feet 

10 12 14 16 

Percentages 



0.6 
0.5 
0.2 
0.1 
5.0 
2.1 
0.5 

14.1 
1.6 

0'.5 

5.2 



8.4 
2.4 
5.0 
6.7 
3.8 
6.4 
1.4 
1.4 



0.2 



13.8 
3.9 
1.3 
0.5 

13.2 
2.4 
2.2 

43.5 
4.2 

3'. 6 

4.6 
5'. 4 



7.5 
6.4 
5.5 
5.6 
7.0 

14.2 
5.5 
1.8 

17.4 
5.2 
0.2 
0.9 
0.7 



21.7 

5.6 

8.5 

4.1 

12.3 

15.3 

11.3 

5.9 

9.2 

4.1 

12.8 

7'. 5 
2.8 
9.6 
4.6 

16.3 

4.4 

8.4 

29.4 

22.3 

24.5 

11.9 

6.2 

19.4 

6.2 

4.0 

0.1 

2.3 

3.0 

2.0 



32.6 
13.2 
29.5 
28.2 
24.2 
21.5 
23.8 
38.9 

9.7 
39.7 
21.5 
20.8 

4.5 

7.5 
13.5 
21.3 
50.5 
16.1 
28.8 
16.4 
22.5 
40.5 
26.3 
19.4 
32.5 
33.4 

8.7 
23.3 
13.1 
10.8 
21.9 
36.6 
40.1 



19.6 
41.5 
26.4 
37.6 
21.0 
29.1 
25.0 
49.0 

14.6 
36.2 
21.7 
21.7 
8.5 
15.7 
24.1 
16.3 
45.5 
17.4 
30.5 
27.8 

2 3'. 7 
18.3 
25.2 
32.5 
34.1 
65.3 
22.3 
33.3 
26.0 
33.9 
23.3 



20 



22 



10.6 
35.1 
32.3 
27.6 
18.2 
22.3 
34.0 
12.1 
20.9 
30.7 

3 3. .5 
73,8 
21.0 
42.7 
38.8 
20.1 
38.4 
17.4 
39.9 
25.1 
17.8 
13.6 
12.5 
17.1 
24.7 
9.6 

60'.3 
53.0 
47.2 
26.5 
34.6 



1.7 
0.9 
3.7 
5.6 
3.2 

1.4 



7.7 

12'. .5 

25.3 

0.8 

4.9 

4.2 

5'. 7 

3.6 
4.2 
6.2 



1.7 



31.2 
3.1 



0.3 
0.5 



0.5 



10.8 



0.9 
1.7 



1.0 



All 

100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 



STEPPING 

Fir stepping is manufactured from clear lumber, of which from 5 per 
cent to 10 per cent of an average mill run is available for this product. Nor- 
mally only about 0.5 per cent of the clear is used for stepping, owing to the 
limited demand for it. It is made into two grades (1917), as given below, 
and is sold both flat grain and vertical grain. It is surfaced on both faces 
and one edge is nosed. 

No. 2 Clear and Better — Vertical Grain. 8 to 14-inch. Defects based on 
piece 10 inches wide and 12 feet long. Shall be well manufactured. Will 
allow slight roughness in dressing or five small pitch pockets, each not ex- 
ceeding 2 inches in length of their equivalent of larger pockets. With one 
of the foregoing defects, may have one to three knots that do not show more 
than ll^ inches on riser edge of the face side or flat grain one-fourth of the 
face on the riser edge. 

169 



No. 3 Clear — Vertical Grain. Will admit of medium torn grain in two or 
three places; season checks that do not go through; stain covering one- 
fourth of the face of the piece. With any one of the above, one of the follow- 
ing or their equivalent of combined defects will be allowed; eight small pitch 
pockets or their equivalent of larger pockets; wane % inch deep on back 
edge, one standard pitch streak, four small knots; two 1-inch knots. 

Sizes 1^4, inch SIS or S2S, finished to 1,',,, iy2 inch to Iffe, 2 inch to 1^ 
inch in thickness. Widths if dressed one or two edges, 8 inch, 10 inch and 
12 inch, finish to 714 inches, 9% inches and 11^/4 inches; 14-inch to 13 inches. 
Standard lengths are multiples of one foot. 

From an average run of logs, the following proportions of each size and 
grade are ordinarily produced. 

APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE OF STEPPING IVIANUFACTITRED INTO THE 

VARIOr.S .SIZES AND GRADES; ALSO PERCENTAGE 

OF EACH SIZE BY GRADES 

Grades 

Sizes, Per cent, 1 VG 2 VG 3 VG 2 & Btr. FG 3 PG Totals, 

Inches Index Percentages 

„ ( All Stp 0.6 . . . n.G 

1 X o ( 1 X 6 in. . . . 100.0 . . . 100.0 

_ I All Stp. 0.4 10.3 . 9.7 1.1 21.5 

Ik X 10 iii^ X 10 in. .. 1.8 47.9 . 45.1 5.2 100.0 

,, J All Stp 24.8 1.3 31.2 4.7 62.0 

114 X 12 1114 X 12 in. .. . 40.1 2.2 50.1 7.6 100.0 

,, j All Stp . 0.5 . . 0.5 

1% X 14 1114 X 14 in. ... . 100.0 . . 100.0 

,, 1 All Stp 4.9 . . . 4.9 

1% X 14 1 11,/ X 14 in. . . . 100.0 . . . 100.0 

„ ,- ( All Stp . . 10.5 . 10.5 

^ X 1^ 1 2 X 12 in. ... . . 100.0 . 100.0 

Totals All Stp 0.4 40.6 1.8 51.4 5.8 100.0 

PERCENTAGE OP EACH LENGTH 

Feet 

Size, 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 All 

Inches Grade Percentages 

1% X 10 2 & Btr. V.G 1.1 1.6 10.9 15.3 31.4 39.7 . 100 

1% X 12 2 & Btr. V.G 0.2 4.6 11.3 34.0 23.8 25.3 0.8 100 

1% X 14 2 & Btr. V.G . 28.6 33.3 38.1 . 100 

1^x12 8 V.G 1.5 15.0 20.0 21.6 39.9 2.0 100 

1% X 14 3 V.G 3.0 2.0 10.0 25.0 22.0 35.0 3.0 100 

114 X 10 2 & Btr. F.G 0.6 1.8 10.1 25.6 22.2 34.7 5.0 100 

1% x 12 2 & Btr. F.G 7.1 28.5 27.7 36.7 . 100 

1% X 10 3 F.G 1.3 10.4 27.1 36.3 24.9 . 100 

1% X 12 3 F.G 0.6 2.4 7.9 14.8 20.7 51.8 1.8 100 

FIR BATTENS 

Battens and mouldings usually form about 2 per cent of the clear lumber 
products. They are made under the specification of the No. 2 Clr. and Btr. 
grade. Two patterns are cut, flat and O.G. Flat battens are % x 2% inches 
and O.G. has the pattern detail as shown, in widths of 2, ly^, and 3 inches. 

TANK STOCK 

Tank stock is all graded No. 2 Clr. and Btr. in accordance with the follow- 
ing specifications (1917); 

Flat Grain and, or. Vertical Grain. Unseasoned, must be well manu- 
factured, and water-tight the full length, unless it is for cutting stock. Will 
allow occasional slight variation in sawing; small knots or pitch pockets 
that do not extend through the piece. If not for cutting stock, edges must 
be practically clear and contain no defects that will prevent a water-tight 
joint when worked. Two-inch stock to contain practically no sap, 3 Inch 
and thicker stock when 6 inches and wider, to allow bright sap one-third of 
face side, not to extend over % of an inch through the piece. 

If surfaced, finished size to be 14-inch less than rough size in thickness 
and 14-inch less than rough size in width. 

MOULDED CASING AND BASE 

Moulded casing and base are graded by the rules governing No. 2 Clr. and 
Btr. Finish. 

170 



FIR TURNING SQUARES 

Fir squares are sold rough for turning and S4S for use as columns. The 
following rule governs the grading (1917): 

No. 2 Clear and Better — May contain such defects as will remove in dress- 
ing or turning; will also admit a few small, sound and tight knots or small 
pitch pockets or any minor defects that will cover well with paint after 
working. 

FIR WINDMILL STOCK 

Windmill stock is used in building windmill towers. It is manufactured 
to meet the grade of Select Common. 

WELL TUBING 

Well tubing is manufactured from No. 2 Clr. and Btr. stock into a 
dressed and matched pattern. 

WELL CURBING 

Well curbing is graded as No. 1 Common and Select Common, and is cut 
to a standard pattern. Stock used for its manufacture is 1 x 6 inches and 
2x6 inches. 

WAGON BOX BOTTOMS 

Wagon box bottoms are made in sets which are 38 and 42 inches wide and 
either if or li^ inch thick. The standard length is 11 feet. Both vertical 
and flat grain stock is used. The pieces which form the sets are dressed and 
matched. They are graded to the same specifications as No. 2 Clr. and Btr. 
Flat Grain Flooring. From 95 to 100 per cent of all bottoms made are verti- 
cal grain. The most common sizes are iil x 38 inches and liV x 38 inches. 

FIR PICKETS 

Pickets are cut from No. 2 Clr. and Better material under the following 
specifications (1917): 

Square pickets will admit minor defects, such as slight roughness in 
dressing, an occasional pin knot or a couple of small pitch pockets. 

Flat Pickets will admit slight roughness in dressing; one or two small 
close pitch pockets or one to two small, sound, tight knots. 

PIPE STAVE STOCK 

Pipe staves are manufactured from No. 2 Clr. & Btr. lumber under the 
following standard specification (1917): 

Flat Grain and, or, Vertical Grain. — Will allow sound and tight knots or 
small pitch pockets that do not go through the piece, bright sap on the 
inside of the stave not extending more than half way through the piece. 
Edges must be practically clear or contain no defects that will prevent a 
water-tight joint when worked. 

FIR FACTORY LUMBER 

Factory lumber is graded under the following rules and specifications 
(1917): 

P'actory Plank — Grades as described under this head are valued for cut- 
ting qualities only, and should not be confounded, either in quality or val- 
ue, with grades outlined for yard purposes. Factory plank of all kinds 
shall be graded for the percentage of Door Cuttings that can be obtained. 

Two grades of Door Cuttings only shall be recognized, and are to bu 
known as No. 1 and No. 2 Cuttings. The only defect admissible in No. 1 
and No. 2 Door Cuttings is bright sap. The grade of No. 2 Door Cuttings will 

171 



admit of one defect only in any one piece. This may be a small knot of 
sound character not to exceed % inch in diameter, or the defect may be 
slightly stained sap, which does not extend over more than half the surface 
of the piece on one side, or one pitch pocket not more than 2 inches long 
and not extending through the piece. 

Unless otherwise agreed. Fir Factory stock, excepting one-inch stock, 
shall contain not less than 65 per cent of vertical grain stock. 

Factory Select and Better — The grade of Factory Select and Better shall 
contain 70 per cent and more of No. 1 Door Cuttings in the sizes specified 
as admissible in No. 1 Shop Common. 

No. 1 Shop Common — The sizes and grades of cuttings admissible in tha 
grade of No. 1 Shop common are: (1) No. 1 Stiles in width 5 or 6 inches 
and in length from 6 ft. 8 in. to 7 ft. 6 in. (2) No. 1 Rails, 9 or 10 inches 
wide and from 2 ft. 4 in., to 3 ft. in length. (3) No. 1 Muntins, 5 inches 
wide and from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. in length. (4) Any number of pieces of 
either Stiles or Rails mentioned above are admissible in the grade of No. 1 
Shop Common, but only two Muntins of the sizes mentioned above shall be 
considered and one No. 2 Door Stile may also be considered in securing the 
required parcentage of cuttings in any given plank. (5) Each plank of No. 
1 Shop Common shall contain not less than 50 per cent or more than 70 
per cent of door cuttings of the sizes and grades herein mentioned. 

No. 2 Shop Common — The sizes admissible in No. 2 Shop Common are: 

(1) Stiles in width 5 or 6 inches and from 6 ft., 8 in., to 7 ft., 6 in. in length. 

(2) Rails, 9 or 10 inches in width and from 2 ft., 4 in., to 3 ft., in length. 

(3) Top rails, 5 inches wide, and from 2 ft., 4 in., to 3 ft. in length. Top 
rails must however be of No. 1 Door Cuttings quality, but figured as No. 2 
Door Cuttings. (4) Muntins, 5 inches wide and from 3 ft., 6 in., to 4 ft., in 
length. (5) Any number of cuttings of any one of the above sizes are ad- 
missible in the grade of No. 2 Shop Common. (6) Each plank of No. 2 Shop 
Common shall contain any one of the following: At least 25 per cent of 
No. 1 Door Cuttings, or not less than 40 per cent of all No. 2 Door Cuttings 
or not less than SSy^ per cent No. 1 and No. 2 Door Cuttings combined. 

1-inch Shop Common — Must be 5 inches and wider; not less than ll 
thick in the rough. Must be of a cutting type to contain not less than 50 
per cent nor more than 70 per cent of No. 1 or No. 2 clear cuttings ordinar- 
ily used in the manufacture of interior finish. Cuttings to be 5 inches and 
wider and 3 feet and longer. 

All factory plank shall be graded from the poor side, and in determining 
the percentages of door cuttings, consideration must be given to the fact 
that plank are to be ripped full length in such manner as will yield the 
highest grade and largest percentage of door cuttings before cross-cutting, 
except in such cases where plank will yield a higher value by being first 
cross-cut for rails. In such instances as when stock is cross-cut for rails, 
where some of the stock so obtained is too poor for either No. 1 or No. 2 
rails, and yet contains stiles or muntins, or top rails, which can be ob- 
tained by ripping this cross-cut stock, the door cuttings so obtained shall 
be figured in when determining percentages. 

SIZES OF FIR FACTORY LUMBER 

1-inch Shop Common S2S to ii-inch; 1^4 -inch No. 1 Shop, S2S to l^s- 
inches; l^^-inch No. 1 Shop, S2S to lii-inches; 2-inch No. 1 Shop, S2S to 
i§i inches; 2y2-inch No. 1 Shop, S2S to 2gVinches; 3-inch No. 1 Shop, S2S 
to 2§i -inches; 4-inch No. 1 Shop, S2S to 3M inches. 

172 



SHIP DECKING 

Fir ship decking is graded No. 1 Clr. in accordance with the following 
specification (1917): 

Flat sizes shall show edge grain on board face. Must be uniformly sawn 
and free from knots on face and upper half of calking edges, except will 
allow one small pitch pocket, not to exceed 2 inches in length in each 16 
lineal feet; bright sap whether green or seasoned on face side corner, not 
exceeding one-fourth the width or one-third the length. One under side 
and lower half of calking edges, will allow sound and tight knots 1 inch or 
less in diameter and, or, small pitch pockets. 

OTHER PRODUCTS 

other standard products manufactured include eave gutters, porch rails, 
newels, and porch columns. 

CAR MATERIALS 

Car materials are manufactured from select common and clear lumber 
stock under standard grading rules. The standard products are car decking 
or flooring, car sills, car siding and roofing, and car lining. Ordinarily, from 
20 to 35 per cent of the cut is available for the manufacture of these prod- 
ucts, but the exact amount made into them depends upon the demand. 

These materials are graded to conform to the following rules and specifi- 
cations where individual railroad specifications are not employed. (Issued 
Feb. 1915) 

No. 2 Clear and Better V.G. Ix4&6 in. (Car Siding, Lining, etc.) — Angle of 
grain no less than 30 degrees. Will admit any three of the following defects 
or their equivalent of combined defects on the face side, based on 10 ft. 
lengths: slight torn grain, small pitch pockets that do not extend through 
the piece, sound pin knots. If specified S2S, rough spots on back side are 
permissible if the piece is of uniform thickness. 

No. 2 Clear and Better F.G. Ix4&6 in. (Car Siding, Lining and Longi- 
tudinal Roofing, etc.) — Will admit any three of the following defects or their 
equivalent of combined defects on the face side, based on 10 ft. lengths: 
slight torn grain, small pitch pockets that do not extend through the piece, 
scab pitch pockets, sound pin knots, sound small knots or their equivalent 
of combined defects. If specified S2S, rough spots on back side permissible 
if the piece is of uniform thickness. 

No. 2 Clear and Better, mill run as to grain. — Apply same rules as on 
flat grain and vertical grain. 

Latitudinal roofing, lx4&6 in. — Same as No. 2 Clear and Better V.G. and 
F.G., except will allow two defects for each 5 or 6 ft. in length. 

No. 3 Clear lx4&6 in. (Box Car Lining, etc.) — May be either fiat or 
vertical grain. Red, yellow, or silver fir. Must be tight-knotted stock. Will 
admit of torn '^rain and may contain five pin or three small knots or one 
standard knot, or five small or two medium pitch pockets, which may ex- 
tend through '.he piece, in any continuous five feet length of the piece or 
their equivalent of combined defects. 

No. 2 Cle?r and Better V. G. IVa and 2x6&8 in. (Car Decking, etc.)— 
Will admit a ay three of the following or their equivalent of combined de- 
fects on the face side: medium torn grain, medium pitch pockets that do 
not extend chrough the piece, sound small knots in a 9 or 10 ft. piece. 
Rough spots on the back side permissible if the piece is of uniform thick- 
ness. On D&M and shiplapped stock a ~{'g inch or i/^-inch tongue or lap may 
be Vg inch scant in width on occasional pieces. 

173 



No. 2 Clear and Better F.G. 11/2 and 2x6&8 in. (Car Decking, etc.)— To 
be graded the same as V.G. except that scab pitch pockets will be admitted. 

Select Common Decking — Will admit heavy torn grain, heart stain, any 
nnmber of sound standard knots, or medium pitch pockets that do not ex- 
tend through the piece, or any combination of the above with minor defects. 
On D&M and shiplapped stock a /.rinch or %-inch tongue or lap may be Va 
inch scant in width on occasional pieces. 

No. 1 Common Decking — Will admit heavy torn grain, any number of 
tight large knots, or medium pitch pockets that do not go through the piece, 
or minor defects. On D&M and shiplapped stock a iV;-inch or %-inch tongue 
may be Vs i^ch scant in width on occasional pieces. 

Car sills and framing are manufactured under No. 1 Common and Select 
Grades. Sills ai'e manufactured in various sizes from 314 x 8^/4 inches to 
7 X 13 inches and in lengths from 34 to 60 feet in odd lengths. 

Standard car decking or flooring is manufactured in three grades, 2 Clr. 
& Btr., Select Common and Common. It is cut to patterns tongued and 
grooved, or for splines as shown below. It is made either vertical grain or 
flat grain and in three widths, 2x6, 2x8, and 2x10 inches. Standard lengths 
are 9 and 10 feet and multiples of these lengths. 

Standard fir car siding and roofing are manufactured in the grade of No. 2 
Clr. & Btr. Standard sizes are 1x4, and 1x6 inches, with standard lengths 
of 8, 9, 10, and 12 ft., or multiples of these for siding, and 5 ft. or multiples 
for roofing. 

These products are manufactured either vertical grain, flat grain, or a 
combination of both. 

Car lining is manufactured to conform with specifications for No. 2 Clr. 
& Btr. and No. 3 Clr. car material, with both vertical and flat grain. Stand- 
ard sizes are 1x4 and 1x6 inches in lengths of 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 
feet or multiples. 

COMMON BOARDS AND SHIPLAP 

Common boards and shiplap are made from common lumber, of which 
from 60 to 80 per cent is obtained from an average run of logs. About 15 
per cent of the common lumber is made into these forms. Boards are sold 
rough or surfaced on one or both faces and edges. Shiplap and D&M are 
made to pattern. 

These products are manufactured in four grades, as follows (1917): 

One-inch Selected Common — 4 to 12-inch. Shall be square edged, well 
manufactured. Will admit sound and tight knots not over 1 inch in diam- 
eter in 4-inch and 6-inch; and not over l^/^ inches diameter in 8-inch to 
12-inch; and medium sized tight pitch pockets, not over 6 inches in length. 
These boards must be of a sound, strong character. A small amount of 
slightly stained sap admissible. 

No. 1 Common — Will admit any two of the following or their equivalent 
of combined defects: Wane V2 inch deep on edge, 1 inch wide on face, ex- 
tending not over one-sixth the length of the piece, sound and tight knots, 
approximately 1% inches in diameter in 8 and 10-inch; 21/2 inches in 12- 
inch; and not over 3 inches in diameter in widths over 12 inches; pitch 
pockets; seasoning checks; one straight split not longer than the width of 
the piece; sap stain, or a slight streak of heart stain. These boards must 
be firm and sound and suitable for use in ordinary construction without 
waste. Will allow a limited number of worm holes. Hemlock permitted 
in this grade. 

No. 2 Common — Must be free from rot and will admit of large, coarse 
knots approximately 2 inches in diameter in 4 and 6-inch stock; 2i/^ inches 
in 8 and 10-inch; and one-third the width of the piece in 12-inch and wider; 

174 



spike knots; any amount of solid heart or sap stain; a limited number of 
well scattered worm holes; solid pitch or pitch pockets; small amount of 
fine shake; wane 2 inches wide, if it does not extend into the opposite face. 
A serious combination of above defects in any one piece not permitted. A 
board may have one large knot hole, provided piece is otherwise as good as 
No. 1 Common. Hemlock permitted. 

No. 3 Common — Will admit of stock below the grade of No. 2 Common 
that is suitable for cheap sheathing and will allow large, coarse knots with- 
out restriction as to size; loose knots; unsound knots; knot holes; wane; 
splits; solid pitch; pitch pockets; shake; heart or sap stain; decayed streak; 
decayed sap; well scattered small rotten spots; any number of worm holes. 
A serious combination of above defects in any one piece not permitted. 
This grade shall be either Douglas fir, white fir, hemlock, larch or spruce 
or a combination of all. 

Sizes of Boards and Shiplap and D. & M: 

lx4-inch, 6-inch, 8-inch, 10-inch and 12-inch. Common Boards, SIS or S2S 
to ^-inch. SIE or S2E ^/^-inch off. Shiplap lx4-inch, 6-inch, 8-inch, 10-inch 
and 12-inch finished %x3, 5, 7, 9 and 11-inch face. D. & M. 1x4, 6, 8, 10 and 
12-inch, finished size, ^xS^i, S'/s, 7, 9 and 11-inch face. Standard lengths 
are multiples of two feet. 

General Specifications for Common Lumber: 

Unless otherwise specified, discoloration through exposure to the ele- 
ments shall not be considered a defect in the grades of Common if otherwise 
conforming to the grade called for. 

In Selected Common and Common grades all Boards, Dimension, Joist 
and Timbers are sold subject to any natural shrinkage, whether shipped 
green, partially or wholly seasoned. 

All Common lumber shipped rough must be well manufactured to sizes 
ordered. Occasional slight variation in sawing will be allowed. 

In the following tables. No. 3 Common is omitted, since it forms but a 
small percentage of the one inch common. 

APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE OF ONE INCH COMMON MANUFACTURED 

INTO THE VARIOUS SIZES AND GRADES; ALSO PER CENT 

OF EACH SIZE BY GRADES 











trades 








Sel. 


No. 1 


No. 2 




Size, 


Per cent. 


Com. 


Com. 


Com. 


Total.'? 


Tnohe.s 


Index 




Pe 


•centages 




1 X 4 


All 1 in. Com. 
1x4 in. 


0.2 


2.9 


0.6 


3.7 


6.2 


78.9 


14.9 


100.0 


1 X 6 


I All 1 in. Com. 
I 1 X 6 in. 


0.2 


7.5 


3.4 


11.1 


1.6 


67.5 


30.9 


100.0 


1 X 8 


j All 1 in. Com. 
1 1 X 8 in. 


0.1 


31.7 


9.7 


41.5 


0.2 


76.4 


23.4 


100.0 


1 X 10. . . . . 


( All 1 in, Com. 
1 1 X 10 in. 


0.2 


13.9 


6.0 


20.1 


0.8 


69.2 


30.0 


100.0 


1 X 12 


j All 1 in. Com. 


0.4 


14.4 


8.8 


23.6 


11 X 12 in. 


1.9 


60.9 


37.2 


100.0 


Totals 


All 1 in. Com. 


1.1 


70.4 


28.5 


100.0 



1x2 and 1x3 inch Common Bds. are manufactured, but in too small quanti- 
ties to appear in this table. 

PERCENTAGE OF EACH LENGTH OF 1-INCH COMMON 

Lengths In Feet 



Size, 




4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


All 


Indies 


Grade 










Percentages 










1x2 


No. 1 Com. 


. 


. 




28.1 


29.7 


20.6 


19.1 


2.5 






100 


1x3 


No. 1 Com. 


. 




3.2 


30.6 


34.4 


9.9 


11.1 


9.5 


1.3 




100 


1x4. 


No. 1 Com. 


1.0 


4.4 


11.6 


17.3 


22.4 


16.0 


20.1 


6.2 


1.0 




100 


No. 2 Com. 


0.5 


4.6 


10.1 


14.0 


18.0 


10.0 


25.6 


16.5 


0.7 




100 


1x6. 


' No. 1 Com. 


0.3 


2.9 


6.0 


11.2 


22.8 


18.6 


25.9 


8.6 


3.7 




100 


No. 2 Com. 


0.4 


2.6 


7.6 


13.0 


25.8 


17.3 


21.4 


6.5 


5.4 




100 


1x8. 


No. 1 Com. 


0.1 


3.2 


5.1 


12.9 


27.6 


20.4 


21.7 


6.0 


2.4 


0.6 


100 


1 No. 2 Com. 


0.9 


1.7 


6.1 


12.2 


29.3 


18.6 


20.7 


7.6 


2.9 




100 


1 X 10 


No. 1 Com. 




3.5 


11.1 


15.8 


17.3 


23.5 


24.4 


3.4 


1.0 




100 


No. 2 Com. 


o.i 


1.4 


5.6 


16.3 


25.3 


18.1 


19.8 


9.3 


4.1 




100 


1 X 12 , 


No. 1 Com. 


. 


1.1 


3.1 


13.4 


21.5 


18.2 


31.6 


7.4 


3.7 




100 


No. 2 Com. 


. 


1.4 


4.2 


12.7 


27.8 


18.0 


21.2 


9.6 


5.0 


O.i 


100 


Since 


Select Common stock is 


selected from No. 1 Com., 


percentages of 


eacl 


length ai 


'e not availabl 


e, but they are probal)ly 


simil 


ar to 


the above. 







175 



COMMON DIMENSION 

Common dimension lumber is manufactured from common lumber of all 
grades, and is one of the principal fir products. From 60 to 80 per cent of 
the lumber obtained from a normal run of Douglas fir logs is suitable for 
it. It is nominally 2 inches thick and from 3 to 20 inches wide, and is made 
in three grades as follows (1917): 

Selected Common — Shall be sound, strong lumber, well manufactured and 
free from defects that materially impair the strength. Must be suitable for 
high class construction purposes and free from shake, loose or rotten knots. 
Will allow occasional variation in sawing; sound and tight, small, and 
standard knots and tight pitch pockets not over 6 inches in length. 12 
inches and wider may contain, in addition to the above, a couple of large 
knots not to exceed 2 inches in diameter, when well placed. A slight amount 
of sap stain admissible. 

No. 1 Common — Must be sound stock, well manufactured and suitable for 
all ordinary construction purposes without waste, and must be sound and 
tight-knotted stock. Will admit of coarser knots than 1-inch Common, which 
in a 2x4 and 3x4 may be approximately li/^ inches; 2 inches in 2x6 and 3x6; 
214 inches in 2x8 and 3x8 and 2x10 and 3x10; and V4. the width of the piece 
in 12 inches and wider; spike knots that do not materially weaken the piece; 
wane not over % the thickness of the piece. 1 inch wide on face up to 6 
inches and ll^ inch wide on face on 8 inch and wider, extending not more 
than i/^ the length of the piece or a proportionate amount for a shorter dis- 
tance on both edges; stain; solid pitch; pitch pockets; seasoning checks; 
one straight split not more than the width of the piece; a limited number 
of worm holes and torn grain. A very serious combination of above defects 
must not be permitted in any one piece. Hemlock permitted in 4 and 6- 
inch widths. 

No. 2 Common — This grade shall consist of lumber suitable for a cheaper 
class of construction than No. 1 Common. Will allow large, coarse knots, 
which in a 2x4 and 3x4 should not be larger than 2V^ inches in diameter, 3 
inches in 2x6 and 8 and 3x8 and 8, and y^ the width of the piece in diameter 
in 2x10 and 3x10 and wider; spike knots; an occasional knot hole if not too 
large; wane or decayed sap, leaving a fair nailing surface; heart and sap 
stain in any amount; small amount of fine shake; large pitch pockets; a 
few well scattered worm holes. A very serious combination of above de- 
fects must not be permitted in any one piece. Hemlock permitted in 4 and 
6-inch widths. 

Common dimension is most commonly sold SISIE (surfaced one side and 
one edge). It is also sold rough, SIS, shiplap, and D. & M. 

SIZE AiVD FORM OF 1" COMMON 

Sizes, No. 1 Com. Rgh. SIS Ship D&M No. 2 Com. SIS Ship 

Inches Percent Percent 

, ^ . ( All No. 1 Com 0.3 3.2 .. 0.6 All No. 2 Com 0.7 

^ -^ * ) No. 1 Com. I"x4" ... 7.1 77.7 .. 15.2 No. 2 Com. I"x4" .. 100.0 

, ^ c ( All No. 1 Com 2.6 7.4 0.1 1.3 All No. 2 Com 4.1 7.8 

^ ^ "^ 1 No. 1 Com. I"x6" ... 23.0 64.4 1.1 11.5 No. 2 Com. I"x6" .. 34.4 65.6 

1 ^ a i All No. 1 Com 8.9 35.7 .. All No. 2 Com 15.3 19.1 

^ ^ " I No. 1 Com. I"x8" 20.0 80.0 . . No. 2 Com. I"x8" . . 44.6 55.4 

1 V iA j All No. 1 Com 0.1 11.2 8.3 .. All No. 2 Com 13.8 7.8 

^ ^ ^" 1 No. ICom. I"xl0" .. 0.7 57.2 42.1 .. No. 2 Com. I"xl0'' . 63.8 36.2 

1 ^ 19 J All No. 1 Com 1.3 19.0 .. .. All No. 2 Com 31.4 

^ ^ ^^ ( No. 1 Com. I"xl2" .. 6.4 93.6 No. 2 Com. I"xl2" . 100.0 

Totals All No. 1 Com 4.3 49.7 44.1 1.9 All No. 2 Com 65.3 34.7 

No. 2 Common and No. 1 Common 1x8 inch are sold rough but in quanti- 
ties too small to show in this table. 

176 



APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE OP COMMON DIMENSION MANUFACTURED 
INTO THE VARIOUS SIZES AND GRADES; ALSO PER CENT 
OP EACH SIZE BY GRADES 



Size, 

Inches 

2x2 

2x4 
2x6 

2x8 

2 X 10 

2 X 12 

2 x 14 



% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 



Per cent 
Index 
All 2 in. 



2 X 
All 
2 X 
All 
2 X 
All 
2 X 
All 
2 X 
All 
2 X 
All 
2 X 
All 



in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 



12 in. 

2 in. 

14 in. 

2 in. 



Com. 
Com. 
Com. 
Com. 
Com. 
Com. 
Com. 
Com. 



Percentages 
Sel. Com No. 1 Com No. 2 Com 

0.2 
100.0 



Total % 

No. 3 Common, when manufactured, 
product and is chiefly 2 x 4, 2 x 6, 2 



0.1 36.2 

0.3 90.7 

0.1 29.6 

0.2 93.8 

0.1 12.2 

0.7 98.4 

6.5 

100.0 

0.1 8.5 

0.5 98.0 

0.7 

100.0 
0.4 93.9 

forms from 0.1 
X 8, and 2 x 10 



3.6 
9.0 
1.9 
6.0 
0.1 
0.9 



0.1 
1.5 



lengths of from 6 to 40 feet in multiples of two feet. 



5.7 
to 2.5 per 
inches. It 



Totals 

0.2 

100.0 

39.9 

100.0 

31.6 

100.0 

12.4 

100.0 

6.5 

100.0 

8.7 

100.0 

0.7 

100.0 

100.0 

cent of 
is cut 



this 
into 



PERCENTAGE OP EACH UENGTH 

Size, Grade 

Inches 6 8 10 



OP COMMON DIMENSION 



2x4 Sel. Com. 



6 

8 

10 

12 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 



Sel. 
Sel. 
Sel. 
Sel. 
No. 
No. 
Nb. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 



Com. 
Com. 
Com. 
Com. 
1 Com. 

Com. 

Com. 

Com. 

Com. 

Com. 

Com. 



0.3 



13.9 



3.1 
0.6 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 



Size, 
Inches 



Grade 



O.f 



1.5 
3.6 
6.0 
4.2 
1.2 
1.8 
1.8 
3.9 



24 



12 

9.8 
28.5 
11.6 

9.7 
19.6 
23.0 
17.8 
15.0 
15.9 
15.7 
17.2 

4.9 



lyength in Feet 

14 16 

Percentages 



21.1 
18.0 
22.3 
17.2 
32.4 
17.8 
16.9 
16.6 
20.1 
18.2 
16.6 
3.4 



52.6 
40.4 
42.8 
69.6 
43.8 
55.6 
32.0 
30.3 
30.7 
30.3 
41.6 
9.9 



1.5 
2.3 



16.0 
12.6 
10. B 
10.6 
8.5 
6.9 



20 



1.7 
9.0 

2.7 

6.7 
11.3 

10.5 

10.2 

7.6 

3.1 



0.4 
3.0 
*> 2 
1.4 
1.7 
13.6 



4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 



Sel. 
Sel. 
Sel. 
Sel. 
Sel. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 



Com. 
Com. 
Com. 



Length in Feet 
26 28 30 32 
Percentages 



34 



36 



38 



9.1 

8.5 

Com 1.7 

Com 

1 Com 

1 Com 0.7 

1 Com 4.5 

1 Com 5.4 

1 Com 3.1 

1 Com 1-5 

1 Com 33.0 



1.8 



3.1 



0.4 



0.1 
1.4 
1.6 
1.8 
2.3 
14.9 



0.2 
1.1 
0.5 
0.5 
3.4 



0.2 
0.2 
0.4 
0.4 
1.5 



0.1 
0.3 
5.5 
0.2 
1.5 



0.1 
0.1 



0.1 
0.1 



0.2 



SIZE AND FORM OF COMMON DIMENSION 



Size, 
Inche 
2 X 
2 X 
2 X 
2 X 
2x1 
2x1 
2 X 1 
2x1 
All 



S4S 

2.7 
0.8 
0.1 



0.1 



.SIS 



0.1 



0.1 



D&M 



1.0 



SISIE 

Percentages 

97.3 

95.1 

99.4 

99.7 

98.7 

90.5 

100.0 

100.0 

98.9 



Rough 



3.0 
0.5 
0.3 
1.3 
9.3 



1.1 



Total 

100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 



COMMON PLANK AND SMALL TIMBERS 

Common plank and small timbers are manufactured from all grades of 
common lumber. About 10 per cent of the common lumber Is ordinarily cut 
into them. The three grades are the same as those for common dimension. 
These products are sold rough, SlSlE, S2S, and SIS. 

The dimensions into which this material is cut run from 3x3 to 8x8 
inches, with widths from 3 to 20 inches in the 3 inch and 4 inch stock. 
Stock is not made 5 inches and 7 inches; and with the exception of 3 inch 
widths, all width measurements are even inches. The products are made 



177 



in even lengths from 8 to 40 feet inclusive. Sizes 6x6, 6x8, and 8x8 inches, 
when over 40 feet in length, are classed as "timbers" instead of "small 
Limbers." 

Sizes of Dimension Phink :iiid Small Timbers 

SISIE or S4S; 2x4 to l%x3%; 2x6 to l%x5%; 2x8 to l%x7y.; 2x10 to 
1%x9i/.; 2x12 to l%xlly.; 2x14 to l%xl3i/y; 2x16 to l%xl5iA; etc. 3x4 to 
214x3%; 3x6 to 2y.,x5y.; 3x8 to 2y.x7Vs; 3x10 to 2y,x9y2; 3x12 to 2y3xlly,; 
3x14 to 2y2xl3yo; 3x16 to 2y2xl5y,, etc.; 4x4 to 3y.x3y,; 4x6 to 3y2x5ya, 
etc.; 5x5 to iy.xiy^, etc.; 6x6 and 8, y." off each way. 

APPROXIMATE PERCKNTAGE OP No. 1 COMMOiX PLAIVK AND SMAI^L, 
TIMBERS MANUFACTURED INTO THE VARIOUS FORMS AND SIZES 



Size, 
Inches 




Per cent Index 

Total 

3x4 inches 

Total 

3x6 inches 

Total 

3x8 inches 

Total 

3 X 10 inches 
Total 

3 X 12 inches 

Total 

4x4 inches 

Total 

4x6 inches 

Total 

4x8 inches 
Total 

4 X 10 inches 

Total 

4 X 12 inches 

Total 

6x6 inches 

Total 

6x8 inches 

Total 

8x8 inches 
Total 



S4S 

0.0 

10.9 



Total each 
SlSlE Rough dimension 



1.3 

11.1 

0.5 

2.4 



0.7 
3.2 
0..5 
9.3 
1.3 
74.0 
4.3 



1.9 
60.9 

2.7 
.52.1 
12.6 
46.9 

8.1 
69.6 
16.1 
86.4 



1.9 



18.7 
83.5 

3.9 
74.3 

0.5 
26.0 
64.5 



0.3 
89.1 

0.2 
100.0 

1.2 
39.1 

2.4 
47.9 
14.2 
53.1 

2.3 
19.3 

2.1 
11.2 

0.1 
100.0 

0.7 
98.1 

3.8 
100.0 

3.0 
13.3 

0.9 
16.4 



31.2 



0.3 
100.0 

0.2 
100.0 

3.1 
100.0 

5.1 

100.0 

26.8 

100.0 

11.7 

100.0 

18.7 

100.0 

0.1 
100.0 

0.7 
100.0 

3.8 

100.0 

22.4 

ioo!o 

5.3 
100.0 

1.8 
100.0 
100.0 



No. 2 and No. 3 Common are manufactured in amounts too small to appear 
in the above figures, but when manufactured occur among the various sizes 
and lengths in approximately the same proportions as No. 1 Common. 



PER CENT OF EACH LENGTH OF PLANK AND SMALL TIMBERS 

Length in Feet 
Size Dressing S 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 



3x 8 SlSlE 

3x10 SISIB 

3x12 SlSlE 

3x12 Rough 1.1 

4x 4 S4S 0.1 

4x 4 SlSlE 

4x 4 Rough 

4x 6 S4S 0.2 

4x 6 SlSlE 

4x 6 Rough 

4x12 Rough 

6x 6 S4S 0.2 

6x 6 SlSlE 0.1 

6x 6 Rough 

6x 8 S4S 0.2 

6x 8 SlSlE 

6x 8 Rough 

6x10 SlSlE 

6x12 Rough 

8x 8 S4S 1.6 

8x 8 Rough 







Pe 


rcenta 


ges 








3.7 


12.1 




39.9 


34.3 








8.0 


6.9 


2.4 


10.9 


61.1 


, , 




10.7 


1.3 


6.7 


9.4 


34.4 


29.2 


8.5 


0.3 


8.0 


0.1 


5.6 


4.5 


71.0 


9.5 


4.8 


1.5 


0.7 


2.9 


21.2 


16.4 


27.9 


8.9 


12.8 


0.5 


2.3 


4.3 


24.4 


14.9 


31.3 


6.5 


9.9 


, , 


2.9 


0.3 


26.1 


19.3 


41.3 


5.6 


6.1 


0.9 




0.9 


10.6 


13.4 


27.2 


15.2 


13.4 


2.4 


6.5 


0.2 


10.4 


12.9 


24.8 


20.2 


16.3 


1.5 


7.4 


1.0 


11.7 


21.4 


29.1 


15.7 


20.5 


0.6 


, , 








2.7 


54.2 


2.4 


5.9 


33.7 


0.4 


8.1 


10.3 


24.5 


14.3 


13.5 


4.0 


7.5 


0.2 


5.4 


9.0 


29.1 


12.2 


11.9 


2.5 


14.1 


1.5 


10.8 


12.4 


32.1 


17.9 


8.9 


2.1 


10.6 


0.3 


7.2 


11.8 


23.2 


13.2 


12.8 


3.8 


8.4 


, , 


7.2 


12.2 


32.6 


15.4 


16.3 


3.3 


13.0 




11.0 


18.9 


18.0 


18.4 


3.7 


, , 


2.9 


4.5 


1.3 


25.1 


34.0 


10.1 
25.3 


8.9 
56.2 




16.1 
5.0 


3.1 


9.6 


10.7 


30.4 


14.6 


14.7 


1.4 


1.9 


0.3 


12.5 


11.9 


2.1 


, , 


, , 


, , 


19.6 



178 



Length in Feet 
Size Dressing 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 id 



3x 8 SISIE 
3x10 SlSlE 



Percentages 



0.6 






0.1 


0.2 


0.1 


. 


2.9 


0.8 




0.4 




1.3 


1.2 


0.5 


3.7 


1.4 


1.0 


3.1 


1.7 


0'.8 


5.9 


5.1 


1.7 


2.4 






3.8 


2.9 


2.1 


19.2 






1.4 


2..6 


1.8 


28.3 


16.4 


, . 



' • 








2.0 
0.5 
6.6 




0.2 




2.1 
















7.2 
0.2 








11.2 
2.8 




0.3 ". 


o'.i 


9'.i 


0.7 


o".3 ; 


0.2 


7'. 9 








13.5 
2.9 


8'. 9 




3.9 



3x12 SISIB 

3x12 Rough 

4x 4 S4S 

4x 4 SlSlE 

4x 4 Rough ^ 

4x 6 S4S 

4x 6 SlSlE 

4x 6 Rough 

4x12 Rough 

6x 6 S4S 

6x 6 SlSlE 

6x 6 Rough 

6x 8 S4S 

6x 8 SlSlE 

6x 8 Rough 

6x10 SlSlE 

6x12 Rough 

8x 8 S4S 

8x 8 Rough 

Note. — These figures are applicable to No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 Common lum- 
ber of these dimensions. 

TIMBERS 

Timbers include the larger pieces of common stock from 8x8 to 24x24 
inches in squared and rectangular pieces. When 6x6 to 6x10 inch pieces 
are over 40 feet in length, they are also sold as timbers. Timbers are made 
from common lumber stock, from 30 to 60 per cent of the material from 
ordinary fir logs being suitable. Normally about 10 per cent of the common 
lumber is made into timbers. The amount manufactured into large timbers 
varies greatly in different mills, owing to the kind of orders handled, the mill 
practice as regards products specialized upon, and the character of the logs 
cut. There are three grades of timber, as follows (1917): 

Selected Common— Shall be sound, strong timber, well manufactured 
and free from defects that materially impair its strength. Must be suit- 
able for high class construction purposes; free from shake, splits, loose 
or rotten knots. Will allow sound and tight knots, if not in clusters, and 
which in no case shall exceed in diameter, one-sixth the width of the face 
in which such knots occur up to and including 12x12; and further providing 
that such sound and tight knots in 14x14 and larger, shall in no case exceed 
two and a half inches in diameter. The select common grade also will 
allow occasional variation in sawing; tight pitch pockets, not over six inches 
in length; wane not to exceed one inch on one corner and not exceeding 
one-sixth the length of the piece. 

No. 1 Common — Timber 6x10 and larger shall be sound stock well man- 
factured and free tram defects that will materially weaken the piece. 
Occasional slight variation in sawing allowed. 10x10 timbers may have a 
2-lnch wane on one corner or the equivalent on two or more corners; checks 
and season checks not extending over % the length of the piece. Smaller 
and larger timbers may have wane in proportion. In addition will allow 
large, sound and tight knots which, approximately, should not be more than 
one-fourth the width in diameter of any one side in which they may appear; 
spike knots; stained sap one-third the width and slight streak of heart 
stain extending not more than y^ the length of the piece. 

No. 2 Common— This grade will admit large, loose or rotten knots; a 
10x10 may have 3-inch wane on one corner or the equivalent on two or 
more corners, — larger and smaller sizes in proportion; shake or rot that 
does not impair its utility for temporary work. Hemlock and White Fir 
will be allowed in this grade. 

.Sizes of Fir Tiiiiliers 

Sizes— SIS, SIE, SlSlE, or S4S; 8x8 and larger Vz inch off each way. 
Standard lengths are multiples of two feet. 

179 



A lower grade of timbers than No. 2 Common is manufactured for use 
in mining construction and is graded as follows (1917): 

No. 1— This grade shall consist of lumber free from serious shake, splits 
or rot. Will allow variations in sawing, sap stain, solid heart stain extend- 
ing over not more than half of piece; large knots; a few well scattered 
worm holes, and wane 3 inches on one corner or its equivalent on two or 
more corners. Will admit 15% Hemlock. 

Timbers are cut into even lengths from 8 to 40 feet, and for special 
orders in lengths up to 90 feet, at additional cost. Prom seventy to ninety 
per cent of the timbers are sold rough. 



PKRtENTAGES OF EACH I>E^(iTH AIVD SIZE OF TIMBERS 



Size, 

6x10 
6x12 
8x10 
10x10 
10x12 
12x12 
12x14 
12x16 



6x10 
6x12 
8x10 
10x10 
10x12 
12x12 
12x14 
12x16 



4.8 



10 

2.2 

9.3 
1.1 
4.4 
0.6 
16.6 
4.4 



Jjengths In Feet 
12 14 16 IS 20 

Percentages 



1.1 11.9 



11.8 
28.1 
6.7 
5.6 
10.0 
16.4 



7.9 
9.0' 
2.8 
4.8 
3.9 
31.1 



21.9 
1.6 
8.7 

18.2 
5.7 
6.1 
8.9 

10.2 



3.9 
24.2 
2.2 
5.6 
15.0 
3.9 
4.0 
5.2 



3.5 
50.7 
12.2 

3.7 
15.6 

6.9 

5.0 
14.7 



22 

3.3 
3.0 
5.3 
0.9 

0.3 

12.2 
6.5 



24 

6.0 
6.5 
4.3 

10.2 
3.8 

19.4 
6.7 
5.0 



34 



1.1 

16.2 

3.3 

1.3 

0.2 



Lengths In Feet 

36 38 40 42 44 
Percentages 
9.3 



26 
4.6 

1.6 

0.4 

2.2 

14.4 

6.5 



46 



28 



1.4 
0.8 
2.2 
3.0 
18.3 



30 



1.0 

3.3 

13.1 

2.1 



32 

32.3 
12.9 
12.7 

5.3 
12.7 

7.9 



Lengths Timbers 
48 % all % of all 



3.5 

2.9 

14.0 



1.1 



1.2 

2.3 
10.0 
18.6 1.2 



1.3 





100.0 


4.0 




100.0 


6.0 


. . 


100.0 


4.0 


1.3 


100.0 


19.0 


3.8 


100.0 


8.0 


0.8 


100.0 


54.0 


. . 


100.0 


2.0 




100.0 


3.0 



Note. — The blanks do not indicate tliat no timbers are made in such sizes, 
but that the amount was too small to be shown in per cent. 

STRINGERS 

Bridge stringers are cut into dimensions of 6 to 10x16 inches and 6 to 
10x18 inches and in lengths from 14 feet upward in multiples of two feet. 
They are cut to two grades, as follows (1917): 

Select Common^Sap shall not show on any one corner more than 10% of 
any one side or edge measured across the surface anywhere along the length 
of the piece. Shall be free from shake, splits or pitch pockets, over % 
inches wide or 5 inches long. Knots greater than two inches in diameter 
will not be permitted within one-fourth of the depth of the stringer from 
any corner nor upon the edge of the piece; knots shall in no case exceed 
three inches in diameter. 

Common — shall be sound common lumber, free from large, unsound knots 
or knots in clusters, or other defects that will materially unfit the piece 
for the purpose intended. 

Stringers are sold rough, SISIE, and S4S. The most common sizes and 
lengths sold are 8x16 and 9x18 inches and 14, 16, 18, 28 and 32 feet. From 
SO to 90 per cent of all stringers manufactured are 8x16 inches. 



TIES 

At an average plant 7 per cent of the common lumber is cut into ties. 

Ties are made to two grade specifications, No. 1 Common and No. 2 
Common. The grade specifications agree generally with those for similar 
grades for planks and small timbers. Ties are sawed to the dimensions 
6>:8, 6x9, 7x8, and 7x9 inches. They are ordinarily 8 feet long, though rail- 
road companies have a variety of individual specifications, to which orders 
are especially cut. Typical specifications for cross ties, bridge ties, and 
switch ties are as follows (1917): 

180 



Cross Ties — Square sawed ties of Class No. 1 shall be of red or yellow 
fr exactly (8) feet long, with ends sawed off square. They shall be seven 
(7) inches thick by nine (9) inches wide. They shall be made from good, 
sound, live, straight grained timber, and shall be free from splits, shakes or 
large pitch seams and pitch pockets, or large black or unsound knots, or 
wane edges over one (1) inch on the face. Sound knots will be admitted, 
not to exceed two and one-half (2%) inches in diameter. 

Ties made from smooth barked, coarse grained, second growth fir timber 
or from coarse grained hearts of large logs will not be accepted. 

No split ties accepted. 

Ties made from fire killed timber that is worm eaten will not be ac- 
cepted. 

Ties varying one (1) inch or more under or over eight (8) feet long 
will not be accepted (1917). 

Bridge Ties — Must be cut from good, sound, live, straight and close 
grained yellow or red fir, cut free from wane edges, square and true to 
sizes ordered, and must be free from large, loose or unsound knots, shakes, 
splits, or large pitch seams or pitch pockets and knots in clusters, and must 
not show a sap angle on more than one edge of a stick. Subject to inspec- 
tion before loading. 

Fir Switch Ties — Timber must be sound yellow or red fir, cut from live 
trees, free from large or unsound knots, large shake or pitch seams over 6 
tc 8 inches in length and wane edges over 1 inch on the face, or other de- 
fects which would impair its strength or durability, and must be sawed 
true to dimensions called for above. Ends to be cut off square. To be 

delivered in complete sets f.o.b. cars on line of Ry., 

subject to inspection before loading. 



181 






WEIGHT OF FIR LUMBER PRODUCTS 

An important item to every manufacturer is the weight of his product, 
since most prices are quoted f.o.b. destination, and proper allowance must 

b(! made for freight. Lumber is different from many other manufactured 
products because its weight is not uniform for a given bulk, neither does 

It remain constant for any length of time, owing to its tendency to give off 
or take up moisture. 

ACTUAL AVKIGHTS OP DOUGLA.S FIR LUMBER PRODUCTS 

Per Cent of Weight Per Thousand Board Feet 

Machined Air Dry Air Dry Kiln 
Cross Green (Winter) (Summer) Dry 

Section 38 lbs. 34 lbs. 32 lbs. 31 lbs. 

to Rough per per per per 

Green cu. ft. cu. ft. cu. ft. cu. ft. 

Cross 32% 18 7o 12% 8% 
Product Section moisture moisture moisture moisture 

1x4 Flooring V.O. & F.G 67.1 2,125 1,900 1,790 1,790 

1 X 6 Flooring- F.0 62.8 1,990 1,780 1,675 1,675 

1 X 6 Flooring- V.G 68.7 2,175 1,945 1,830 1,830 

% X 4 Ceiling 70.2 1,400 1,255 1,180 1.180 

% X 4 Partition 68.0 1,345 1,205 1,135 1,135 

1 X 4 D.V. Ceilirg 56.0 1,775 1,585 1,490 1,490 

2 X 6 Silo Staves 71.7 2,270 2,030 1,910 1.910 

1 X 6 Finish 68.5 2,170 1,940 1,825 1,825 

1x8 Finish 68.0 2,150 1,925 1,810 1.810 

1 X 12 Finish 69.3 2,190 1,960 1,845 1,845 

1x6 Drop Sidirg & Rustic .... 60.25 1,910 1,705 1,605 1,605 

1x8 Paistic 63.2 2,000 1,790 1,685 i 1,685 

2 X 4 SISIE 73.6 2,330 2,085 1,965 1.900 

2 X 6 SISIB 76.2 2,410 2,155 2.030 1.965 

2 X 8 SlSlE 76.2 2,410 2,155 2,030 1,965 

2 X 10 SlSlE 77.2 2.440 2,185 2,055 1.990 

2 X 12 SlSlE 77.9 2,530 2,260 2,130 2,060 

1 X 6 SIS 75.0 2,375 2.120 2,000 1.935 

1 X 8 SIS 75.0 2.375 2,120 2,000 1,935 

1 X 10 SIS 75.0 2,375 2,120 2,000 1,935 

1 X 12 SIS 75.0 2,375 2,120 2,000 1,935 

1x8 Shiplap 65.6 2,080 1,860 1,750 1,695 

1 X 10 Shiplap 67.5 2,135 1,910 1,800 1,740 

1 X 12 Shiplap 68.8 2,180 1.950 1,835 1,775 

3 X 12 SlSlE 79.9 2,530 2,260 2,130 2,060 

4 X 6 SlSlE 80.3 2,540 2,270 2,140 2,070 

6 X 6 SlSlE 84.0 2.660 2,380 2,240 

6 X 8 SlSlE 86.0 2,720 2.435 2,290 

8 X 8 S4S 87.8 2,780 2,485 2,340 

10 X 10 S4S 90.2 2.855 2,550 2,405 

12x12 843 92.0 2,910 2,610 2,450 .;. 

8 X 16 S4S 91.0 2,880 2,580 2,430 



1 Above this point a kiln dry weight of 32 lbs. per cubic foot is used be- 
cause the density of the -wood is increased by shrinkage prior to machining. 
The otiier products are figured as being machined green. 

Note. — The above weights are correct for the average run of fir shipped 
under tlie moisture conditions specified and are obtained by operators striving 
for lo-vv weiglits. The density or weight of fir varies, and, in addition, much 
lumber is shipped with more moisture than that shown above. For these 
reasons the weight figures are only indicative of results that can be obtained. 

This variance in weight has made it necessary to establish arbitrary 
weights for use in figuring freight on quotations, and the figures were made 
sufficiently high to protect most of the manufacturers against loss through 
extra freight. 

The weights shown in the table are not the arbitrary shipping weights 
ordinarily used in calculating freight, but they are the actual weight of prop- 
erly dried products made from wood of average density. 



182 



/ 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




017 100 380 5 




